Endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagic and apoptotic cell death, and immune activation by a natural triterpenoid in human prostate cancer cells.

Though the current therapies are effective at clearing an early stage prostate cancer, they often fail to treat late-stage metastatic disease. We aimed to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the anticancer effects of a natural triterpenoid, ganoderic acid DM (GA-DM), on two human prostate cancer cell lines: the androgen-independent prostate carcinoma (PC-3), and androgen-sensitive prostate adenocarcinoma (LNCaP). Cell viability assay showed that GA-DM was relatively more toxic to LNCaP cells than to PC-3 cells (IC50 s ranged 45-55 µM for PC-3, and 20-25 µM for LNCaP), which may have occurred due to differential expression of p53. Hoechst DNA staining confirmed detectable nuclear fragmentation in both cell lines irrespective of the p53 status. GA-DM treatment decreased Bcl-2 proteins while it upregulated apoptotic Bax and autophagic Beclin-1, Atg5, and LC-3 molecules, and caused an induction of both early and late events of apoptotic cell death. Biochemical analyses of GA-DM-treated prostate cancer cells demonstrated that caspase-3 cleavage was notable in GA-DM-treated PC-3 cells. Interestingly, GA-DM treatment altered cell cycle progression in the S phase with a significant growth arrest in the G2 checkpoint and enhanced CD4 + T cell recognition of prostate tumor cells. Mechanistic study of GA-DM-treated prostate cancer cells further demonstrated that calpain activation and endoplasmic reticulum stress contributed to cell death. These findings suggest that GA-DM is a candidate for future drug design for prostate cancer as it activates multiple pathways of cell death and immune recognition.

Elevation of c-MYC disrupts HLA class II-mediated immune recognition of human B cell tumors.

Elevated levels of the transcription factor c-myc are strongly associated with various cancers, and in particular B cell lymphomas. Although many of c-MYC's functions have been elucidated, its effect on the presentation of Ag through the HLA class II pathway has not been reported previously. This is an issue of considerable importance, given the low immunogenicity of many c-MYC-positive tumors. We report in this paper that increased c-MYC expression has a negative effect on the ability of B cell lymphomas to functionally present Ags/peptides to CD4(+) T cells. This defect was associated with alterations in the expression of distinct cofactors as well as interactions of antigenic peptides with class II molecules required for the presentation of class II-peptide complexes and T cell engagement. Using early passage Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) tumors and transformed cells, we show that compared with B lymphoblasts, BL cells express decreased levels of the class II editor HLA-DM, lysosomal thiol-reductase GILT, and a 47-kDa enolase-like protein. Functional Ag presentation was partially restored in BL cells treated with a c-MYC inhibitor, demonstrating the impact of this oncogene on Ag recognition. This restoration of HLA class II-mediated Ag presentation in early passage BL tumors/cells was linked to enhanced HLA-DM expression and a concurrent decrease in HLA-DO in BL cells. Taken together, these results reveal c-MYC exerts suppressive effects at several critical checkpoints in Ag presentation, which contribute to the immunoevasive properties of BL tumors.

Reduction of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and lymphoma growth by a natural triterpenoid.

Lymphoma is a potentially life threatening disease. The goal of this study was to investigate the therapeutic potential of a natural triterpenoid, Ganoderic acid A (GA-A) in controlling lymphoma growth both in vitro and in vivo. Here, we show that GA-A treatment induces caspase-dependent apoptotic cell death characterized by a dose-dependent increase in active caspases 9 and 3, up-regulation of pro-apoptotic BIM and BAX proteins, and a subsequent loss of mitochondrial membrane potential with release of cytochrome c. In addition to GA-A's anti-growth activity, we show that lower doses of GA-A enhance HLA class II-mediated antigen (Ag) presentation and CD4+ T cell recognition of lymphoma cells in vitro. The therapeutic relevance of GA-A treatment was also tested in vivo using the EL4 syngeneic mouse model of metastatic lymphoma. GA-A-treatment significantly prolonged survival of EL4 challenged mice and decreased tumor metastasis to the liver, an outcome accompanied by a marked down-regulation of STAT3 phosphorylation, reduction myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and enhancement of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells in the host. Thus, GA-A not only selectively induces apoptosis in lymphoma cells, but also enhances cell-mediated immune responses by attenuating MDSCs, and elevating Ag presentation and T cell recognition. The demonstrated therapeutic benefit indicates that GA-A is a candidate for future drug design for the treatment of lymphoma.

Disruption of HLA class II antigen presentation in Burkitt lymphoma: implication of a 47,000 MW acid labile protein in CD4+ T-cell recognition.

While Burkitt lymphoma (BL) has a well-known defect in HLA class I-mediated antigen presentation, the exact role of BL-associated HLA class II in generating a poor CD4(+) T-cell response remains unresolved. Here, we found that BL cells are deficient in their ability to optimally stimulate CD4(+) T cells via the HLA class II pathway. This defect in CD4(+) T-cell recognition was not associated with low levels of co-stimulatory molecules on BL cells, as addition of external co-stimulation failed to elicit CD4(+) T-cell activation by BL. Further, the defect was not caused by faulty antigen/class II interaction, because antigenic peptides bound with measurable affinity to BL-associated class II molecules. Interestingly, functional class II-peptide complexes were formed at acidic pH 5·5, which restored immune recognition. Acidic buffer (pH 5·5) eluate from BL cells contained molecules that impaired class II-mediated antigen presentation and CD4(+) T-cell recognition. Biochemical analysis showed that these molecules were greater than 30,000 molecular weight in size, and proteinaceous in nature. In addition, BL was found to have decreased expression of a 47,000 molecular weight enolase-like molecule that enhances class II-mediated antigen presentation in B cells, macrophages and dendritic cells, but not in BL cells. These findings demonstrate that BL likely has multiple defects in HLA class II-mediated antigen presentation and immune recognition, which may be exploited for future immunotherapies.

A possible cross-talk between autophagy and apoptosis in generating an immune response in melanoma.

Melanoma is the most aggressive form of skin cancer, responsible for the majority of skin cancer related deaths. Thus, the search for natural molecules which can effectively destroy tumors while promoting immune activation is essential for designing novel therapies against metastatic melanoma. Here, we report for the first time that a natural triterpenoid, Ganoderic acid DM (GA-DM), induces an orchestrated autophagic and apoptotic cell death, as well as enhanced immunological responses via increased HLA class II presentation in melanoma cells. Annexin V staining and flow cytometry showed that GA-DM treatment induced apoptosis of melanoma cells, which was supported by a detection of increased Bax proteins, co-localization and elevation of Apaf-1 and cytochrome c, and a subsequent cleavage of caspases 9 and 3. Furthermore, GA-DM treatment initiated a possible cross-talk between autophagy and apoptosis as evidenced by increased levels of Beclin-1 and LC3 proteins, and their timely interplay with apoptotic and/or anti-apoptotic molecules in melanoma cells. Despite GA-DM's moderate cytotoxicity, viable cells expressed high levels of HLA class II proteins with improved antigen presentation and CD4+ T cell recognition. The antitumor efficacy of GA-DM was also investigated in vivo in murine B16 melanoma model, where GA-DM treatment slowed tumor formation with a significant reduction in tumor volume. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the potential of GA-DM as a natural chemo-immunotherapeutic capable of inducing a possible cross-talk between autophagy and apoptosis, as well as improved immune recognition for sustained melanoma tumor clearance.

HLA class II defects in Burkitt lymphoma: bryostatin-1-induced 17 kDa protein restores CD4+ T-cell recognition.

While the defects in HLA class I-mediated Ag presentation by Burkitt lymphoma (BL) have been well documented, CD4+ T-cells are also poorly stimulated by HLA class II Ag presentation, and the reasons underlying this defect(s) have not yet been fully resolved. Here, we show that BL cells are deficient in their ability to optimally stimulate CD4+ T cells via the HLA class II pathway. The observed defect was not associated with low levels of BL-expressed costimulatory molecules, as addition of external co-stimulation failed to result in BL-mediated CD4+ T-cell activation. We further demonstrate that BL cells express the components of the class II pathway, and the defect was not caused by faulty Ag/class II interaction, because antigenic peptides bound with measurable affinity to BL-associated class II molecules. Treatment of BL with broystatin-1, a potent modulator of protein kinase C, led to significant improvement of functional class II Ag presentation in BL. The restoration of immune recognition appeared to be linked with an increased expression of a 17 kDa peptidylprolyl-like protein. These results demonstrate the presence of a specific defect in HLA class II-mediated Ag presentation in BL and reveal that treatment with bryostatin-1 could lead to enhanced immunogenicity.

Anticancer effects of four varieties of muscadine grape.

The initiating event in carcinogenesis is a somatic mutation. During progression of the disease, additional mutations accumulate as the transformed cells develop the ability to proliferate and metastasize. These mutations can be produced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated through metabolism, or environmental insult. Metastasis involves tissue degradative enzymes, many of which are members of the matrix metalloproteinase family. Hence, substances that can neutralize ROS, inhibit mutagenesis, or block activity of the matrix metalloproteinases should prove to be anticarcinogenic. This study was performed to evaluate the possible anticarcinogenic characteristics of muscadine grapes. These grow wild in the southeast United States and have not been subjected to extensive breeding, as have most commercially cultivated fruits. The extracts tested were from pomace remaining after wine production. This is usually discarded, but the results obtained in this study indicate that pomace water extracts could be used as sources for purification of anticarcinogenic compounds. Four varieties of muscadine grape were tested for their abilities to affect mutagenesis by the metabolically activated carcinogen 2-aminoanthracene. Each extract was also assayed for antioxidant activity and for its ability to inhibit activity of matrix metalloproteinases-2 and -9. Each of the four extracts showed significant inhibition of 2-aminoanthracene mutagenesis, high antioxidant activity, and the ability to inhibit activities of both metalloproteinases, implying that these extracts could be good inhibitors of carcinogenesis. Two of the extracts showed little activity when tested for their effects on mutagenesis by the direct-acting mutagen methyl methanesulfonate.

Mechanisms regulating enhanced human leukocyte antigen class II-mediated CD4 + T cell recognition of human B-cell lymphoma by resveratrol.

Malignant B-cells express measurable levels of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II proteins, but often escape immune recognition by CD4 + T cells. Resveratrol (Resv) has been the focus of numerous investigations due to its potential chemopreventive and anti-cancer effects, but it has never been tested in the regulation of immune components in B-cell tumors. Here, we show for the first time that Resv treatment enhances HLA class II-mediated immune detection of B-cell lymphomas by altering immune components and class II presentation in tumor cells. Resv treatment induced an up-regulation of both classical and non-classical HLA class II proteins (DR and DM) in B-lymphoma cells. Resv also altered endolysosomal cathepsins (Cat S, B and D) and a thiol reductase (GILT), increasing HLA class II-mediated antigen (Ag) processing in B-cell lymphomas and their subsequent recognition by CD4 + T cells. Mechanistic study demonstrated that Resv treatment activated the recycling class II pathway of Ag presentation through up-regulation of Rab 4B protein expression in B-lymphoma cells. These findings suggest that HLA class II-mediated immune recognition of malignant B-cells can be improved by Resv treatment, thus encouraging its potential use in chemoimmunotherapy of B-cell lymphoma.

Burkitt lymphoma: pathogenesis and immune evasion.

B-cell lymphomas arise at distinct stages of cellular development and maturation, potentially influencing antigen (Ag) presentation and T-cell recognition. Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is a highly malignant B-cell tumor associated with Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) infection. Although BL can be effectively treated in adults and children, leading to high survival rates, its ability to mask itself from the immune system makes BL an intriguing disease to study. In this paper, we will provide an overview of BL and its association with EBV and the c-myc oncogene. The contributions of EBV and c-myc to B-cell transformation, proliferation, or attenuation of cellular network and immune recognition or evasion will be summarized. We will also discuss the various pathways by which BL escapes immune detection by inhibiting both HLA class I- and II-mediated Ag presentation to T cells. Finally, we will provide an overview of recent developments suggesting the existence of BL-associated inhibitory molecules that may block HLA class II-mediated Ag presentation to CD4+ T cells, facilitating immune escape of BL.