Assessment of Advanced Diagnostic Bronchoscopy Outcomes for Peripheral Lung Lesions: A Delphi Consensus Definition of Diagnostic Yield and Recommendations for Patient-centered Study Designs. An Official American Thoracic Society/American College of Chest Physicians Research Statement.

Background: Advanced diagnostic bronchoscopy targeting the lung periphery has developed at an accelerated pace over the last two decades, whereas evidence to support introduction of innovative technologies has been variable and deficient. A major gap relates to variable reporting of diagnostic yield, in addition to limited comparative studies. Objectives: To develop a research framework to standardize the evaluation of advanced diagnostic bronchoscopy techniques for peripheral lung lesions. Specifically, we aimed for consensus on a robust definition of diagnostic yield, and we propose potential study designs at various stages of technology development. Methods: Panel members were selected for their diverse expertise. Workgroup meetings were conducted in virtual or hybrid format. The cochairs subsequently developed summary statements, with voting proceeding according to a modified Delphi process. The statement was cosponsored by the American Thoracic Society and the American College of Chest Physicians. Results: Consensus was reached on 15 statements on the definition of diagnostic outcomes and study designs. A strict definition of diagnostic yield should be used, and studies should be reported according to the STARD (Standards for Reporting Diagnostic Accuracy Studies) guidelines. Clinical or radiographic follow-up may be incorporated into the reference standard definition but should not be used to calculate diagnostic yield from the procedural encounter. Methodologically robust comparative studies, with incorporation of patient-reported outcomes, are needed to adequately assess and validate minimally invasive diagnostic technologies targeting the lung periphery. Conclusions: This American Thoracic Society/American College of Chest Physicians statement aims to provide a research framework that allows greater standardization of device validation efforts through clearly defined diagnostic outcomes and robust study designs. High-quality studies, both industry and publicly funded, can support subsequent health economic analyses and guide implementation decisions in various healthcare settings.

Nunavimmi puvakkut kaggutimik aanniaqarniq: Qanuilirqitaa? Lung cancer in Nunavik: How are we doing? A retrospective matched cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Whether Inuit in Canada experience disparities in lung cancer survival remains unknown. When requiring investigation and treatment for lung cancer, all residents of Nunavik, the Inuit homeland in Quebec, are sent to the McGill University Health Centre (MUHC), in Montréal. We sought to compare survival among patients with lung cancer at the MUHC, who were residents of Nunavik and Montréal, Quebec, respectively. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study. Using lung cancer registry data, we identified Nunavik residents with histologically confirmed lung cancer diagnosed between 2005 and 2017. We aimed to match 2 Montréal residents to each Nunavik resident on sex, age, calendar year of diagnosis, and histology (non-small cell lung cancer v. small cell lung cancer). We reviewed medical records for data on additional patient characteristics and treatment, and obtained vital status from a provincial registry. We compared survival using Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazards regression. RESULTS: We included 95 residents of Nunavik and 185 residents of Montréal. For non-small cell lung cancer, median survival times were 321 (95% confidence interval [CI] 184-626) days for Nunavik (n = 71) and 720 (95% CI 536-1208) days for Montréal residents (n = 141). For small cell lung cancer, median survival times were 190 (95% CI 159-308) days for Nunavik (n = 24) and 270 (95% CI 194-766) days for Montréal residents (n = 44). Adjusting for matching variables, stage, performance status, and comorbidity, Nunavik residents had a higher hazard of death (hazard ratio 1.68, 95% CI 1.17-2.41). INTERPRETATION: Nunavik residents experience disparities in survival after lung cancer diagnosis. Although studies in other Inuit Nunangat regions are needed, our findings point to an urgent need to ensure that interventions aimed at improving lung cancer survival, including lung cancer screening, are accessible to Inuit Nunangat residents.

Recommendations to Improve Management of Incidental Pulmonary Nodules in Canada: Expert Panel Consensus.

Introduction: Incidental pulmonary nodules (IPN) are common radiologic findings, yet management of IPNs is inconsistent across Canada. This study aims to improve IPN management based on multidisciplinary expert consensus and provides recommendations to overcome patient and system-level barriers. Methods: A modified Delphi consensus technique was conducted. Multidisciplinary experts with extensive experience in lung nodule management in Canada were recruited to participate in the panel. A survey was administered in 3 rounds, using a 5-point Likert scale to determine the level of agreement (1 = extremely agree, 5 = extremely disagree). Results: Eleven experts agreed to participate in the panel; 10 completed all 3 rounds. Consensus was achieved for 183/217 (84.3%) statements. Panellists agreed that radiology reports should include a standardized summary of findings and follow-up recommendations for all nodule sizes (ie, <6, 6-8, and >8 mm). There was strong consensus regarding the importance of an automated system for patient follow-up and that leadership support for organizational change at the administrative level is of utmost importance in improving IPN management. There was no consensus on the need for standardized national referral pathways, development of new guidelines, or establishing a uniform picture archiving and communication system. Conclusion: Canadian IPN experts agree that improved IPN management should include standardized radiology reporting of IPNs, standardized and automated follow-up of patients with IPNs, guideline adherence and implementation, and leadership support for organizational change. Future research should focus on the implementation and long-term effectiveness of these recommendations in clinical practice.

Overuse of small chest drains for pleural effusions: a retrospective practice review.

PURPOSE: Small-bore drains (≤ 16 Fr) are used in many centers to manage all pleural effusions. The goal of this study was to determine the proportion of avoidable chest drains and associated complications when a strategy of routine chest drain insertion is in place. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: We retrospectively reviewed consecutive pleural procedures performed in the Radiology Department of the McGill University Health Centre over one year (August 2015-July 2016). Drain insertion was the default drainage strategy. An interdisciplinary workgroup established criteria for drain insertion, namely: pneumothorax, pleural infection (confirmed/highly suspected), massive effusion (more than 2/3 of hemithorax with severe dyspnea /hypoxemia), effusions in ventilated patients and hemothorax. Drains inserted without any of these criteria were deemed potentially avoidable. FINDINGS: A total of 288 procedures performed in 205 patients were reviewed: 249 (86.5%) drain insertions and 39 (13.5%) thoracenteses. Out of 249 chest drains, 113 (45.4%) were placed in the absence of drain insertion criteria and were deemed potentially avoidable. Of those, 33.6% were inserted for malignant effusions (without subsequent pleurodesis) and 34.5% for transudative effusions (median drainage duration of 2 and 4 days, respectively). Major complications were seen in 21.5% of all procedures. Pneumothorax requiring intervention (2.1%), bleeding (0.7%) and organ puncture or drain misplacement (2%) only occurred with drain insertion. Narcotics were prescribed more frequently following drain insertion vs. thoracentesis (27.1% vs. 9.1%, p = 0.03). ORIGINALITY/VALUE: Routine use of chest drains for pleural effusions leads to avoidable drain insertions in a large proportion of cases and causes unnecessary harms.

Inhaled corticosteroid use and the incidence of lung cancer in COPD.

BACKGROUND: Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are suggested for potential chemoprevention of lung cancer. Several observational studies in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) reported inconsistent results, either significant reductions in lung cancer incidence with ICS use or no effect. We assessed this association, using an approach that avoided biases affecting some of the studies. METHODS: A cohort of patients with COPD, new users of long-acting bronchodilators over 2000-2014, was formed using the Quebec healthcare databases, and followed until 2015 for a first diagnosis of lung cancer. A 1-year delay after cohort entry was used to avoid protopathic bias and a 1-year latency period was included after the initiation of ICS use. A time-dependent Cox regression model was used to estimate the hazard ratio (HR) of lung cancer associated with ICS exposure, adjusted for covariates. RESULTS: The cohort involved 63 276 subjects, including 63% receiving ICS, with 3743 lung cancers occurring during a mean follow-up of 5 years. The adjusted HR of lung cancer associated with any ICS exposure was 1.01 (95% CI 0.94-1.08), relative to no ICS use. The HR with longer time (>4 years) since ICS initiation was 0.92 (95% CI 0.83-1.03), while with higher mean daily ICS dose (>1000 µg fluticasone equivalents) was 1.36 (95% CI 1.03-1.81). CONCLUSIONS: Inhaled corticosteroid use is not associated with a reduction in lung cancer incidence in patients with COPD. Observational studies reporting such reduction may have been affected by time-related biases and the inclusion of patients with asthma. The proposition of a randomised trial warrants some caution.

Impact of rapid investigation clinic on timeliness of lung cancer diagnosis and treatment.

BACKGROUND: Guidelines recommend timely evaluation of patients with suspected lung cancer. We evaluated the impact of a Rapid Investigation Clinic (RIC) on timeliness of lung cancer diagnosis and treatment between February 2010 and December 2011. METHODS: Investigation within the RIC was conducted by a pulmonologist and a nurse clinician. Controls were patients with lung cancer, investigated outside the RIC at the same institution during the same time period. The primary outcome was time between first contact with a local physician for suspected lung cancer (T0) and first treatment. Factors associated with the delay from T0 to first treatment were examined using multivariate analysis. Completeness of lung cancer staging according to guidelines was assessed. RESULTS: A total of 195 patients were investigated within the RIC vs. 132 patients outside the RIC. The median delay between T0 and first treatment was 65 days (interquartile range [IQR] 46-92 days) in the RIC and 78 days (IQR 49-119 days) in the non-RIC patients (p ≤ 0.01). Time from T0 to pathological diagnosis was shorter in the RIC (median 26 days; IQR 14-42 days) vs. non-RIC patients (median 40 days; IQR 16-68 days). In multivariate analysis, investigation in the RIC was associated with a reduction in time to first treatment of 24 days (95% confidence interval [CI] 12-35 days) when adjusted for relevant confounders. Guideline-concordant investigation occurred more frequently in RIC patients, based on the quality indicators examined. CONCLUSIONS: A Rapid Investigation Clinic reduces delays to lung cancer diagnosis and treatment, and impacts quality of care.

Endobronchial ultrasound learning curve in interventional pulmonary fellows.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Little published data exist regarding the learning curve for endobronchial ultrasound-transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA). We sought to assess the improvement in skill as trainees learned EBUS-TBNA in a clinical setting. METHODS: This is a multicentre cohort study of EBUS-TBNA technical skill of interventional pulmonology (IP) fellows as assessed with EBUS-TBNA computer simulator testing every 25 clinical cases throughout IP fellowship training. RESULTS: Nine fellows from three academic centres in the United States and Canada were enrolled in the study. Ongoing improvements were seen for EBUS-TBNA efficiency score and percentage of lymph nodes correctly identified on ultrasound exam, even after 200 clinical cases. Expert-level technical skill was obtained for EBUS efficiency score and for percentage of lymph nodes correctly identified on ultrasound exam at a median of 212 and 164 procedures, respectively; however, 33% of fellows did not achieve expert-level technical skill for either metric during their fellowship training. Significant variation in learning curves of the fellows was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Significant variation is seen in the EBUS-TBNA learning curves of individual IP fellows and for individual procedure components, with ongoing improvement in EBUS-TBNA skill even after 200 clinical cases. These results highlight the need for validated, objective measures of individual competence, and can assist training programmes in ensuring adequate procedure volumes required for a majority of trainees to successfully complete these assessments.

Accuracy of Cytologic vs Histologic Specimens for Assessment of Programmed Cell Death Ligand-1 Expression in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1) expression on tumor cells, evaluated by immunohistochemistry, guides the use of immunotherapy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). RESEARCH QUESTION: What is the sensitivity and specificity of PD-L1 testing performed in cytologic vs paired histologic specimens in patients with NSCLC? STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: The MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases were searched through June 1, 2021. The primary outcome was pooled sensitivity and specificity of PD-L1 testing performed on cytologic specimens compared with the reference standard of histologic specimens, analyzed at the PD-L1 expression cutoffs (tumor proportion score) ≥ 1% and ≥ 50%. Pooled sensitivity and specificity, and associated 95% CIs, were estimated using bivariate generalized linear mixed models. RESULTS: Twenty-six articles were included, encompassing a total of 1,064 pairs of histology specimens and cytology cell blocks, and 267 pairs of histology specimens and direct smears. Among these, 946 paired specimens were acquired without interval treatment between the collection of histology and cytology samples. The pooled sensitivity and specificity of cytology specimens compared with paired histology specimens at the PD-L1 expression cutoff ≥ 1% were 0.84 (95% CI, 0.77-0.89) and 0.88 (95% CI, 0.82-0.93), respectively, whereas the pooled sensitivity and specificity at cutoff ≥ 50% were 0.78 (95% CI, 0.69-0.86) and 0.94 (95% CI, 0.91-0.96), respectively. When only paired specimens acquired without interval treatment were considered, the pooled sensitivity and specificity of cytology specimens at PD-L1 expression cutoff ≥ 1% were 0.84 (95% CI, 0.76-0.90) and 0.89 (95% CI, 0.82-0.94), respectively, whereas the pooled sensitivity and specificity at cutoff ≥ 50% were 0.80 (95% CI, 0.71-0.89) and 0.94 (95% CI, 0.91-0.96), respectively. INTERPRETATION: Cytologic specimens provide an accurate assessment of PD-L1 expression in most patients with NSCLC, at both ≥ 1% and ≥ 50% cutoffs, when compared with histologic specimens. TRIAL REGISTRATION: PROSPERO; No.: CRD42020153279; URL: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/.

The impact of tunneled pleural catheters on the quality of life of patients with malignant pleural effusions.

BACKGROUND: Tunneled pleural catheters (TPC) are used in the management of malignant pleural effusions (MPE), but the impact of this palliative procedure on patient quality of life (QoL) has not been well described. OBJECTIVES: To ascertain the impact of TPCs on symptoms and QoL of patients with recurrent MPE. METHODS: Patients with recurrent MPE completed the EORTC QLQ-C30 and LC13 QoL questionnaires at baseline, 2 and 14 weeks; FACIT-TS-G© treatment satisfaction surveys were completed at 14 weeks. RESULTS: A total of 82 patients were recruited. Thirty-seven patients (37/82, 45%) died prior to their 14-week follow-up appointment. Significant improvements in dyspnea at 2 weeks were demonstrated with both dyspnea scores (LC13 baseline score 64.1, 2-week score 43.7, mean change -20.4, n = 56, p < 0.001; C30 baseline score 78.9, 2-week score 46.6, mean change -32.4, n = 68, p < 0.001), as well as with the MRC score (baseline median score 4, 2-week score 3, n = 70, p < 0.001). Global health status/QoL was also significantly improved at 2 weeks (baseline score 34.1, 2-week score 46.3, mean change 12.3, n = 68, p < 0.001). Improvements in cough, fatigue and all functional scales were noted at 2 weeks. The improvements in dyspnea and global health status/QoL were maintained to 14 weeks in surviving subjects and there was further improvement in the MRC score at 14 weeks. Patients who completed the FACIT-TS-G survey demonstrated overall satisfaction with TPC treatment. CONCLUSIONS: TPCs are associated with a significant improvement in global health status, QoL and dyspnea at the 2-week time point in patients with recurrent MPE.

Impact of a Pleural Care Program on the Management of Patients With Malignant Pleural Effusions.

BACKGROUND: Malignant pleural effusions (MPEs) are common and associated with a poor prognosis. Yet, many patients face suboptimal management characterized by repeated, nondefinitive therapeutic procedures and potentially avoidable hospital admissions. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective comparison of patients who underwent a definitive palliative intervention for MPE (indwelling pleural catheter or pleurodesis) at our center, before and after the implementation of a pleural care program. Targeted interventions included staff education, establishment of formal pleural drainage policies, a pleural clinic with weekday walk-in capacity, and a rapid access pathway for oncology patients. Outcomes assessed were the proportion of emergency room (ER) presentations, hospitalizations, number of nondefinitive pleural procedures, and time-to-definitive palliative procedure. RESULTS: A total of 144 patients were included: 69 in the preintervention group and 75 in the postintervention group. Although there was no difference in the proportion of ER presentations before and after interventions (43.5% vs. 38.7%, P =0.56), hospital admissions declined significantly (47.8% vs. 24.0%, P =0.003). The proportion of patients undergoing chest drain insertion decreased significantly (46.4% vs. 13.3%, P <0.001), with a stable low number of nondefinitive procedures per patient (1.6±1.1 vs. 1.3±0.9, P =0.32). A 7-day decrease in median time from presentation-to-definitive palliative procedure ( P =0.05) was observed. CONCLUSION: A targeted pleural care program improved MPE palliation through reduction in hospitalizations and chest drain use, and shorter time-to-definitive palliation, despite failing to reduce ER presentations.

Reduction of Chest Drain Overuse Through Implementation of a Pleural Drainage Order Set.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Small chest drains are used in many centers as the default drainage strategy for various pleural effusions. This can lead to drain overuse, which may be harmful. This study aimed to reduce chest drain overuse. METHODS: We studied consecutive pleural procedures performed in the radiology department before (August 1, 2015, to July 31, 2016) and after intervention (September 1, 2019, to January 31, 2020). Chest drains were deemed indicated or not based on criteria established by a local interdisciplinary work group. The intervention consisted of a pleural drainage order set embedded in electronic medical records. It included indications for chest drain insertion, prespecified drain sizes for each indication, fluid analyses, and postprocedure radiography orders. Overall chest drain use and proportion of nonindicated drains were the outcomes of interest. RESULTS: We reviewed a total of 288 procedures (pre-intervention) and 155 procedures (post-intervention) (thoracentesis and drains). Order-set implementation led to a reduction in drain use (86.5% vs 54.8% of all procedures, P < .001) and reduction in drain insertions in the absence of an indication (from 45.4% to 29.4% of drains, P = .01). The need for repeat procedures did not increase after order-set implementation (22.0% pre vs 17.7% post, P = .40). Complication rates and length of hospital stay did not differ significantly after the intervention. More pleural infections were treated with drain sizes of 12Fr and greater (31 vs 70%, P < .001) after order-set deployment, and direct procedural costs were reduced by 27 CAN$ per procedure. CONCLUSION: Implementation of a pleural drainage order-set reduced chest drain use, improved procedure selection according to clinical needs, and reduced direct procedural costs. In institutions where small chest drains are used as the default drainage strategy for pleural effusions, this order set can reduce chest drain overuse.

Preoperative mediastinal staging in early-stage lung cancer: Targeted nodal sampling is not inferior to systematic nodal sampling.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether targeted sampling (TS), which omits biopsy of triple- normal lymph nodes (LNs) on positron emission tomography, computed tomography, and endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS), is noninferior to systematic sampling (SS) of mediastinal LNs during EBUS for staging of patients with early-stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). METHODS: Patients who are clinical nodal (cN)0-N1 with suspected NSCLC eligible for EBUS based on positron emission tomography/computed tomography were enrolled in this prospective, multicenter trial. During EBUS, all patients underwent TS and then crossed over to SS, whereby at least 3 mediastinal LN stations (4R, 4L, 7) were routinely sampled. Gold standard of comparison was pathologic results. Based on the previous feasibility trial, a noninferiority margin of 6% was established for difference in missed nodal metastasis (MNM) incidence between TS and SS. The McNemar test on paired proportions was used to determine MNM incidence for each sampling method. Analysis was per-protocol using a level of significance of P < .05. RESULTS: Between November 2020 and April 2022, 91 patients were enrolled at 6 high-volume Canadian tertiary care centers. A total of 256 LNs underwent TS and SS. Incidence of MNM was 0.78% in SS and 2.34% in TS, with an absolute difference of 1.56% (95% confidence interval, -0.003% to 4.1%; P = .13). This falls within the noninferiority margin. A total of 6/256 LNs from 4 patients who were not sampled by TS were found to be malignant when sampled by SS. CONCLUSIONS: In high-volume thoracic endosonography centers, TS is not inferior to SS in nodal staging of early-stage NSCLC. This results in change of clinical management for a minority of patients.

Reporting Standards for Diagnostic Testing: Guidance for Authors From Editors of Respiratory, Sleep, and Critical Care Journals.

Diagnostic testing is fundamental to medicine. However, studies of diagnostic testing in respiratory medicine vary significantly in terms of their methodology, definitions, and reporting of results. This has led to often conflicting or ambiguous results. To address this issue, a group of 20 respiratory journal editors worked to develop reporting standards for studies of diagnostic testing based on a rigorous methodology to guide authors, peer reviewers, and researchers when conducting studies of diagnostic testing in respiratory medicine. Four key areas are covered, including defining the reference standard of truth, measures of dichotomous test performance when used for dichotomous outcomes, measures of multichotomous test performance for dichotomous outcomes, and what constitutes a useful definition of diagnostic yield. The importance of using contingency tables for reporting results is addressed with examples from the literature. A practical checklist is provided as well for reporting studies of diagnostic testing.

Diagnostic Accuracy of Bronchoscopy Procedures: Definitions, Pearls, and Pitfalls.

The field of diagnostic bronchoscopy has developed at an accelerated pace. Certain limitations have plagued the evaluation of advanced bronchoscopy techniques, including the use of inconsistently defined measures of diagnostic accuracy, and confusion around the definition of "diagnostic yield." This methodological review outlines standard measures of diagnostic accuracy and highlights how these differ from "diagnostic yield." We draw examples from the interventional bronchoscopy literature to illustrate key concepts and potential pitfalls.

Smoking Cessation by Phone Counselling in a Lung Cancer Screening Program: A Retrospective Comparative Cohort Study.

Introduction: Smoking cessation integration within lung cancer screening programs is challenging. Currently, phone counselling is available across Canada for individuals referred by healthcare workers and by self-referral. We compared quit rates after phone counselling interventions between participants who self-refer, those referred by healthcare workers, and those referred by a lung cancer screening program. Methods: This is a retrospective cohort study of participants referred to provincial smoking cessation quit line in contemporaneous cohorts: self-referred participants, healthcare worker referred, and those referred by a lung cancer screening program if they were still actively smoking at the time of first contact. Baseline, covariates (sociodemographic information, smoking history, and history of mental health disorder) and quit intentions (stage of change, readiness for change, previous use of quit programs, and previous quit attempts) were compared among the three cohorts. Our primary outcome was defined as self-reported 30-day abstinence rates at 6 months. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify whether group assignment was associated with higher quit rates. Results: Participants referred by a lung cancer screening program had low quit rates (12%, 95% CI: 5-19) at six months despite the use of phone counselling. Compared to patients who were self-referred to the smoking cessation phone helpline, individuals referred by a lung cancer screening program were much less likely to quit (adjusted OR 0.37; 95% CI: 0.17-0.8), whereas those referred by healthcare workers were twice as likely to quit (adjusted OR 2.16 (1.3-3.58)) even after adjustment for differences in smoking intensity and quit intentions. Conclusions: Phone counselling alone has very limited benefit in a lung cancer screening program. Participants differ significantly from those who are otherwise referred by healthcare workers. This study underlines the importance of a dedicated and personalized tobacco treatment program within every lung cancer screening program. The program should incorporate best practices and encourage treatment regardless of readiness to quit.

Gender differences in survival following hospitalisation for COPD.

BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Gender differences in the clinical expression of COPD are increasingly recognised, but outcome differences have not been systematically examined. Gender differences in survival and rate of rehospitalisation were investigated in a large cohort of elderly patients with chronic airflow obstruction hospitalised for COPD. METHODS: The databases from the Québec provincial health insurance plan were used. The study population included subjects aged >66 years who received ≥3 prescriptions for respiratory medications in any 1-year period between 1 January 1990 and 31 December 2001. The study cohort consisted of patients with a first hospitalisation for COPD, after selection into the study population. Patients were followed until death or 31 December 2003. The Kaplan-Meier method was used to estimate time to death and time to first hospitalisation for obstructive airways disease (COPD or asthma). The Cox proportional hazards model was used to determine the effect of male gender on all-cause mortality and rehospitalisation. RESULTS: The cohort consisted of 19,260 women and 23,893 men with a mean age of 77 years. 11,245 (58.4%) women and 16,754 (70.1%) men died after cohort entry. Male sex was associated with a significantly increased risk of death (adjusted HR 1.45, 95% CI 1.42 to 1.49) and with a significantly increased risk of rehospitalisation for obstructive airways disease (adjusted HR 1.12, 95% CI 1.09 to 1.15). CONCLUSION: Mean survival and time to rehospitalisation for obstructive airways disease are significantly better for female patients.