Characteristics of neonatal near miss in hospitals in Benin, Burkina Faso and Morocco in 2012-2013.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to explore the usefulness of neonatal near miss in low- and middle-income countries by examining the incidence of neonatal near miss and pre-discharge neonatal deaths across various obstetric risk categories in 17 hospitals in Benin, Burkina Faso and Morocco. METHODS: Data were collected on all maternal deaths, maternal near miss, neonatal near miss (based on organ-dysfunction markers), Caesarean sections, stillbirths, neonatal deaths before discharge and non-cephalic presentations, and on a sample of births not falling in any of the above categories. RESULTS: The burden of stillbirth, pre-discharge neonatal death or neonatal near miss ranged from 23 to 129 per 1000 births in Moroccan and Beninese hospitals, respectively. Perinatal deaths (range 17-89 per 1000 births) were more common than neonatal near miss (range 6-43 per 1000 live births), and between a fifth and a third of women who had suffered a maternal near miss lost their baby. Pre-discharge neonatal deaths and neonatal near miss had a similar distribution of markers of organ dysfunction, but unlike pre-discharge neonatal deaths most neonatal near miss (63%, 81% and 71% in Benin, Burkina Faso and Morocco, respectively) occurred among babies who were not considered premature, low birthweight or with a low 5-min Apgar score as defined by WHO's pragmatic markers of severe neonatal morbidity. CONCLUSION: Whether the measurement of neonatal near miss adds useful insights into the quality of perinatal or newborn care in settings where facility-based intrapartum and early newborn mortality is very high is uncertain. Perhaps the greatest advantage of adding near miss is the shift in focus from failure to success so that lessons can be learned on how to save lives even when clinical conditions are life-threatening.

A probabilistic method to estimate the burden of maternal morbidity in resource-poor settings: preliminary development and evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Maternal morbidity is more common than maternal death, and population-based estimates of the burden of maternal morbidity could provide important indicators for monitoring trends, priority setting and evaluating the health impact of interventions. Methods based on lay reporting of obstetric events have been shown to lack specificity and there is a need for new approaches to measure the population burden of maternal morbidity. A computer-based probabilistic tool was developed to estimate the likelihood of maternal morbidity and its causes based on self-reported symptoms and pregnancy/delivery experiences. Development involved the use of training datasets of signs, symptoms and causes of morbidity from 1734 facility-based deliveries in Benin and Burkina Faso, as well as expert review. Preliminary evaluation of the method compared the burden of maternal morbidity and specific causes from the probabilistic tool with clinical classifications of 489 recently-delivered women from Benin, Bangladesh and India. RESULTS: Using training datasets, it was possible to create a probabilistic tool that handled uncertainty of women's self reports of pregnancy and delivery experiences in a unique way to estimate population-level burdens of maternal morbidity and specific causes that compared well with clinical classifications of the same data. When applied to test datasets, the method overestimated the burden of morbidity compared with clinical review, although possible conceptual and methodological reasons for this were identified. CONCLUSION: The probabilistic method shows promise and may offer opportunities for standardised measurement of maternal morbidity that allows for the uncertainty of women's self-reported symptoms in retrospective interviews. However, important discrepancies with clinical classifications were observed and the method requires further development, refinement and evaluation in a range of settings.

Can hospital audit teams identify case management problems, analyse their causes, identify and implement improvements? A cross-sectional process evaluation of obstetric near-miss case reviews in Benin.

BACKGROUND: Obstetric near-miss case reviews are being promoted as a quality assurance intervention suitable for hospitals in low income countries. We introduced such reviews in five district, regional and national hospitals in Benin, West Africa. In a cross-sectional study we analysed the extent to which the hospital audit teams were able to identify case management problems (CMPs), analyse their causes, agree on solutions and put these solutions into practice. METHODS: We analysed case summaries, women's interview transcripts and audit minutes produced by the audit teams for 67 meetings concerning one woman with near-miss complications each. We compared the proportion of CMPs identified by an external assessment team to the number found by the audit teams. For the latter, we described the CMP causes identified, solutions proposed and implemented by the audit teams. RESULTS: Audit meetings were conducted regularly and were well attended. Audit teams identified half of the 714 CMPs; they were more likely to find managerial ones (71%) than the ones relating to treatment (30%). Most identified CMPs were valid. Almost all causes of CMPs were plausible, but often too superficial to be of great value for directing remedial action. Audit teams suggested solutions, most of them promising ones, for 38% of the CMPs they had identified, but recorded their implementation only for a minority (8.5%). CONCLUSIONS: The importance of following-up and documenting the implementation of solutions should be stressed in future audit interventions. Tools facilitating the follow-up should be made available. Near-miss case reviews hold promise, but their effectiveness to improve the quality of care sustainably and on a large scale still needs to be established.

Validity and reliability of postpartum morbidity questionnaires in Benin.

We describe the validity and reliability of midwife-administered postpartum questionnaires in home and clinic settings. Women identified prospectively before or following hospital delivery (n = 476), September 2004-January 2005, were re-contacted at 6 months postpartum for home interview and medical examination. Reliability was measured by comparing women's responses to the same questions at home and in clinic interviews. Validity was measured by comparing questionnaire responses with results of medical examination. Reliability of responses to questions comparing home and clinic interview was very good (κ > 0.6) for resumption of menstruation and occurrence of hemorrhoids, moderate (0.4 < κ ≤ 0.6) for weight loss and incontinence, and poor (κ ≤ 0.4) for burning sensation or pain on urination and exhaustion or fatigue. The home and clinic interviews had poor validity for detecting common postpartum morbidities: anaemia (sensitivity 33.7%, specificity 65.7%), urinary incontinence (5.1, 98.1%), urinary tract infection (2.1, 94.5%), prolapse (18.2, 91.2%); but good validity for hemorrhoids (71.4, 86.9%). In this setting, questionnaire-based interviews were neither reliable nor valid tools for measuring morbidity at 6 months postpartum. A medical examination is required to identify and measure the levels of morbidity up to 6 months postpartum.

Experiences of women seeking care for abortion complications in health facilities: Secondary analysis of the WHO Multi-Country Survey on Abortion in 11 African countries.

OBJECTIVE: Despite evidence of acute and long-term consequences of suboptimal experiences of care, standardized measurements across countries remain limited, particularly for postabortion care. We aimed to determine the proportion of women reporting negative experiences of care for abortion complications, identify risk factors, and assess the potential association with complication severity. METHODS: Data were sourced from the WHO Multi-Country Survey on Abortion for women who received facility-based care for abortion complications in 11 African countries. We measured women's experiences of care with eight questions from an audio computer-assisted self-interview related to respect, communication, and support. Multivariable generalized estimating equations were used for analysis. RESULTS: There were 2918 women in the study sample and 1821 (62%) reported at least one negative experience of postabortion care. Participants who were aged under 30 years, single, of low socioeconomic status, and economically dependent had higher odds of negative experiences. Living in West or Central Africa, rather than East Africa, was also associated with reportedly worse care. The influence of complication severity on experience of care appeared significant, such that women with moderate and severe complications had 12% and 40% higher odds of reporting negative experiences, respectively. CONCLUSION: There were widespread reports of negative experiences of care among women receiving treatment for abortion complications in health facilities. Our findings contribute to the scant understanding of the risk factors for negative experiences of postabortion care and highlight the need to address harmful provider biases and behaviors, alleviate health system constraints, and empower women in demanding better care.

Modern contraceptive use among adolescent girls and young women in Benin: a mixed-methods study.

OBJECTIVES: The study aimed to assess the determinants of modern contraceptive method use among young women in Benin. DESIGN: A mixed-methods design. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: We used the Benin 2017-2018 Demographic and Health Survey datasets for quantitative analysis. Data collection was conducted using multiple-cluster sampling method and through household survey. Qualitative part was conducted in the city of Allada, one of the Fon cultural capitals in Benin. The participants were purposively selected. OUTCOMES: Contraceptive prevalence rate, unmet need for modern method and percentage of demand satisfied by a modern method for currently married and sexually active unmarried women were measured in the quantitative part. Access barriers and utilisation of modern methods were assessed in the qualitative part. RESULTS: Overall, 8.5% (95% CI 7.7% to 9.5%) among young women ages 15-24 were using modern contraceptives and 13% (12.1% to 14.0%) among women ages 25 or more. Women 15-24 had a higher unmet need, and a lower demand satisfied by modern contraceptive methods compared with women ages 25 or more. 60.8% (56.9% to 64.7%) of all unmarried young women had unmet need for modern contraceptives. Young women were more likely to use male condoms which they obtain mainly from for-profit outlets, pharmacies and relatives. The factors associated with demand satisfied by a modern method were literacy, being unmarried, knowing a greater number of modern contraceptive methods and experiencing barriers in access to health services. On the other hand, the qualitative study found that barriers to using modern methods include community norms about pre-marital sexual intercourse, perceptions about young women's fertility, spousal consent and the use of non-modern contraceptives. CONCLUSION: Contraceptive use is low among young women in Benin. The use of modern contraceptives is influenced by sociodemographic factors and social norms. Appropriate interventions might promote comprehensive sexuality education, increase community engagement, provide youth-friendly services and address gender inequalities.

Understanding abortion-related complications in health facilities: results from WHO multicountry survey on abortion (MCS-A) across 11 sub-Saharan African countries.

INTRODUCTION: Complications due to unsafe abortions are an important cause of morbidity and mortality in many sub-Saharan African countries. We aimed to characterise abortion-related complication severity, describe their management, and to report women's experience of abortion care in Africa. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was implemented in 210 health facilities across 11 sub-Saharan African countries. Data were collected on women's characteristics, clinical information and women's experience of abortion care (using the audio computer-assisted self-interviewing (ACASI) system). Severity of abortion complications were organised in five hierarchical mutually exclusive categories based on indicators present at assessment. Descriptive bivariate analysis was performed for women's characteristics, management of complications and reported experiences of abortion care by severity. Generalised linear estimation models were used to assess the association between women's characteristics and severity of complications. RESULTS: There were 13 657 women who had an abortion-related complication: 323 (2.4%) women were classified with severe maternal outcomes, 957 (7.0%) had potentially life-threatening complications, 7953 (58.2%) had moderate complications and 4424 (32.4%) women had mild complications. Women who were single, multiparous, presenting ≥13 weeks of gestational age and where expulsion of products of conception occurred prior to arrival to facility were more likely to experience severe complications. For management, the commonly used mechanical methods of uterine evacuation were manual vacuum aspiration (76.9%), followed by dilation and curettage (D&C) (20.1%). Most frequently used uterotonics were oxytocin (50∙9%) and misoprostol (22.7%). Via ACASI, 602 (19.5%) women reported having an induced abortion. Of those, misoprostol was the most commonly reported method (54.3%). CONCLUSION: There is a critical need to increase access to and quality of evidence-based safe abortion, postabortion care and to improve understanding around women's experiences of abortion care.

Risk of psychological distress following severe obstetric complications in Benin: the role of economics, physical health and spousal abuse.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the impact of life-threatening obstetric complications ('near miss') on women's mental health in low- and middle-income countries. AIMS: To examine the relationships between near miss and postpartum psychological distress in the Republic of Benin. METHOD: One-year prospective cohort using epidemiological and ethnographic techniques in a population of women delivering at health facilities. RESULTS: In total 694 women contributed to the study. Except when associated with perinatal death, near-miss events were not associated with greater risk of psychological distress in the 12 months postpartum compared with uncomplicated childbirth. Much of the direct effect of near miss with perinatal death on increased risk of psychological distress was shown to be mediated through wider consequences of traumatic childbirth. CONCLUSIONS: A live baby protects near-miss women from increased vulnerability by giving a positive element in their lives that helps them cope and reduces their risk of psychological distress. Near-miss women with perinatal death should be targeted early postpartum to prevent or treat the development of depressive symptoms.

Effects of severe obstetric complications on women's health and infant mortality in Benin.

OBJECTIVE: To document the impact of severe obstetric complications on post-partum health in mothers and mortality in babies over 12 months in Benin and to assess whether severe complications associated with perinatal death are particularly likely to lead to adverse health consequences. METHODS: Cohort study which followed women and their babies after a severe complication or an uncomplicated childbirth. Women were selected in hospitals and interviewed at home at discharge, and at 6 and 12 months post-partum. Women were invited for a medical check-up at 6 months and 12 months. RESULTS: The cohort includes 205 women with severe complications and a live birth, 64 women with severe complications and perinatal death and 440 women with uncomplicated delivery. Women with severe complications and a live birth were not dissimilar to women with a normal delivery in terms of post-partum health, except for hypertension [adjusted OR = 5.8 (1.9-17.0)], fever [adjusted OR = 1.71 (1.1-2.8)] and infant mortality [adjusted OR = 11.0 (0.8-158.2)]. Women with complications and perinatal death were at increased risk of depression [adjusted OR = 3.4 (1.3-9.0)], urine leakages [adjusted OR = 2.7 (1.2-5.8)], and to report poor health [adjusted OR = 5.27 (2.2-12.4)] and pregnancy's negative effects on their life [adjusted OR = 4.11 (1.9-9.0)]. Uptake of post-natal services was poor in all groups. CONCLUSION: Women in developing countries face a high risk of severe complications during pregnancy and delivery. These can lead to adverse consequences for their own health and that of their offspring. Resources are needed to ensure that pregnant women receive adequate care before, during and after discharge from hospital. Near-miss women with a perinatal death appear a particularly high-risk group.

'Rowing against the current': the policy process and effects of removing user fees for caesarean sections in Benin.

BACKGROUND: In 2009, the Benin government introduced a user fee exemption policy for caesarean sections. We analyse this policy with regard to how the existing ideas and institutions related to user fees influenced key steps of the policy cycle and draw lessons that could inform the policy dialogue for universal health coverage in the West African region. METHODS: Following the policy stages model, we analyse the agenda setting, policy formulation and legitimation phase, and assess the implementation fidelity and policy results. We adopted an embedded case study design, using quantitative and qualitative data collected with 13 tools at the national level and in seven hospitals implementing the policy. RESULTS: We found that the initial political goal of the policy was not to reduce maternal mortality but to eliminate the detention in hospitals of mothers and newborns who cannot pay the user fees by exempting a comprehensive package of maternal health services. We found that the policy development process suffered from inadequate uptake of evidence and that the policy content and process were not completely in harmony with political and public health goals. The initial policy intention clashed with the neoliberal orientation of the political system, the fee recovery principles institutionalised since the Bamako Initiative and the prevailing ideas in favour of user fees. The policymakers did not take these entrenched factors into account. The resulting tension contributed to a benefit package covering only caesarean sections and to the variable implementation and effectiveness of the policy. CONCLUSION: The influence of organisational culture in the decision-making processes in the health sector is often ignored but must be considered in the design and implementation of any policy aimed at achieving universal health coverage in West African countries.

The costs of 'free': Experiences of facility-based childbirth after Benin's caesarean section exemption policy.

As one of many similar policies in the region, in 2009 Benin launched a free c-section policy in publicly funded hospitals intended to decrease the barriers to facility delivery and the heavy financial burdens on women and their families. We conducted a qualitative study for eight months between 2012 and 2014 to understand women's experiences of care in maternity wards. We carried out semi-structured interviews with 30 women who had delivered via c-section at five hospitals. Two of these hospitals became case study sites where in-depth research was undertaken that consisted of participant observation in each maternity ward and 32 further interviews with women who had complicated, vaginal and c-section deliveries. Overall, women continue to pay for care, both in the form of under-the-table payments to health workers and prescribed payments for services not covered by the policy, though they consider the costs reasonable compared to what the charges were before. Lifting the fees has facilitated conditions for midwives to alert doctors that the procedure might be needed. Partly because c-sections are still feared by most women, in one hospital this led to some women perceiving them as a threat if their labour was progressing more slowly. Implementation of the policy differed greatly between the two case study hospitals. We conclude that some burdens on women's access to care have been addressed but deterrents remain to the improved perception of quality of care on the part of women. Findings detail how important context is to the implementation of the policy, and suggest that similar user-fee removal policies should be accompanied by other measures addressing staff management and quality of care.

Maternity wards or emergency obstetric rooms? Incidence of near-miss events in African hospitals.

BACKGROUND: This study examines near-miss obstetric events in African hospitals as to the frequency, nature, and ratio of near miss to death and considers whether these could become useful indicators for monitoring the performance of obstetric services in Africa. METHODS: Prospective or retrospective reviews of medical records were conducted in nine referral hospitals in three countries (Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, and Morocco). We calculated the incidence of near-miss obstetric events, near-miss cases, and maternal deaths related to hemorrhage, hypertensive diseases of pregnancy, dystocia, infections, and anemia and analyzed these according to hospital and timing relative to admission. RESULTS: The incidence of near-miss cases was varied, and in some hospitals extremely large: from 1% to almost a quarter of all deliveries were near misses. Near-miss cases were 15 times more common than deaths (ranging from a ratio of 9:1-108:1). Most of the women with near-miss events (NMEs) (83%) were already in a critical condition on arrival at the hospital (range 54-90%), and two in three were referred from another facility. The most frequent types of NMEs were hemorrhage and hypertensive diseases of pregnancy, but anemia was the leading cause in three first referral level hospitals in Benin and Côte d'Ivoire. Near-miss events due to infections were rare. CONCLUSIONS: Near-miss events are extremely common in some African hospitals, with a high proportion arriving in critical conditions. Near-miss events must be estimated separately for those already in a critical condition on arrival and those developing after admission; the first as a good indicator of the effectiveness of emergency referrals and the second as a potential tool for monitoring the performance of obstetric services.

Obstetric audit in resource-poor settings: lessons from a multi-country project auditing 'near miss' obstetrical emergencies.

This paper outlines the practical steps involved in setting up and running multi-professional, in-depth case reviews of 'near miss' obstetrical complications. It draws on lessons learned in 12 referral hospitals in Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Morocco. A range of feasibility indicators are presented which measured the implementation and frequency of audit activities, the quality of participation, adherence to the planned protocol for the near-miss audits, the quality of audit discussions and the sustainability of the project. Although the principles of the audit approach were well accepted and implemented everywhere, near-miss audits appeared most successful in first referral level hospitals. Contextual factors that determine the successful implementation of near-miss audit include staff finding adequate time for audit activities, financial incentives to groups rather than individuals, involvement of senior staff and hospital managers, the ease of communication in smaller units, the employment of social workers for the incorporation of women's views at audits, and the strength of external support provided by the research team. The poor quality of information recorded in case notes was recognized everywhere as a deficiency, but did not present a major obstacle to effective case reviews. Ownership and leadership within the hospital, more easily achieved in the first-level referral hospitals, were probably the most important determinants of successful implementation. Sustainability requires a commitment to audit from policy makers and managers at higher levels of the health system and some devolution of resources for implementing recommendations.