Higher chocolate intake is associated with longer telomere length among adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Chocolate intake has shown cardiometabolic health benefits. Whether chocolate has any effect on cellular aging remains unknown. We aimed to test the hypothesis that higher chocolate intake is associated with longer leukocyte telomere length (LTL) in adolescents. METHODS: A total of 660 adolescents (aged 14-18 years) were included in the analysis. The chocolate intake was assessed by 7-day, 24-h dietary recalls and split into three groups, which were none, <2 servings/week, and 2 servings/week or more. LTL (T/S ratio) was determined by a modified quantitative polymerase chain reaction-based assay. RESULTS: Among the 660 adolescents, 58% did not take any chocolate, 25% consumed <2 servings/week, and 17% consumed ≥2 servings/week. Compared to non-consumers, adolescents who consumed chocolate of ≥2 servings/week had 0.27 standard deviation (SD) longer LTL (p = 0.014). Higher chocolate consumption was associated with increased apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1) (p = 0.038) and ApoA1/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (p = 0.046). Moreover, higher ApoA1/HDL levels were correlated with longer LTL (p = 0.026). CONCLUSION: Adolescents who consume 2 servings/week or more of chocolate candy have longer LTL compared with non-consumers, and ApoA1/HDL pathway may be involved in this relationship.

Phylloquinone Intake Is Associated with Cardiac Structure and Function in Adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Associations between childhood vitamin K consumption and cardiac structure and function have not been investigated. OBJECTIVE: We determined associations between phylloquinone (vitamin K-1) intake and left ventricular (LV) structure and function in adolescents. METHODS: We assessed diet with three to seven 24-h recalls and physical activity (PA) by accelerometry in 766 adolescents (aged 14-18 y, 50% female, 49% black). Fat-free soft tissue (FFST) mass and fat mass were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. LV structure [LV mass (g)/height (m)2.7 (LV mass index) and relative wall thickness] and function [midwall fractional shortening (MFS) and ejection fraction] were assessed by echocardiography. Associations were evaluated by comparing the LV structure and function variables across tertiles of phylloquinone intake. Prevalence and OR of LV hypertrophy (LV mass index >95th percentile for age and sex) were also assessed by phylloquinone tertiles. RESULTS: The prevalence of LV hypertrophy progressively decreased across tertiles of phylloquinone intake (P-trend < 0.01). Multinomial logistic regression-adjusting for age, sex, race, Tanner stage, systolic blood pressure, FFST mass, fat mass, socioeconomic status, PA, and intakes of energy, fiber, calcium, vitamin C, vitamin D, and sodium-revealed that compared with the highest phylloquinone intake tertile (reference group), the adjusted OR for LV hypertrophy was 3.3 (95% CI: 1.2, 7.4) for those in the lowest phylloquinone intake tertile. When LV structure variables were compared across phylloquinone intake tertiles adjusting for the same covariates, there were significant linear downward trends for LV mass index (6.5% difference, tertile 1 compared with tertile 3) and relative wall thickness (9.2% difference, tertile 1 compared with tertile 3; both P-trend ≤ 0.02). Conversely, significant linear upward trends across phylloquinone intake tertiles were observed for MFS (3.4% difference, tertile 1 compared with tertile 3) and ejection fraction (2.6% difference, tertile 1 compared with tertile 3; both P-trend < 0.04). CONCLUSION: Our adolescent data suggest that subclinical cardiac structure and function variables are most favorable at higher phylloquinone intakes.

Nonlinear Relationship between Birth Weight and Visceral Fat in Adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the association of birth weight with abdominal fat distribution and markers known to increase risk for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes in adolescents. STUDY DESIGN: In 575 adolescents aged 14-18 years (52% female, 46% black), birth weight was obtained by parental recall. Fasting blood samples were measured for glucose, insulin, lipids, adiponectin, leptin, and C-reactive protein. Subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue and visceral adipose tissue were assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS: When we compared markers of cardiometabolic risk across tertiles of birth weight, adjusting for age, sex, race, Tanner stage, physical activity, socioeconomic status, and body mass index, there were significant U-shaped trends for homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, leptin, and visceral adipose tissue (all Pquadratic < .05). A significant linear downward trend across tertiles of birth weight was observed for triglycerides (Plinear = .03). There were no differences in fasting glucose, blood pressure, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, adiponectin, C-reactive protein, or subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue across tertiles of birth weight. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that both low and high birth weights are associated with greater visceral adiposity and biomarkers implicated in insulin resistance and inflammation in adolescents.

Correlates of dietary energy misreporting among European adolescents: the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence (HELENA) study.

This study examined the correlates of dietary energy under-reporting (UR) and over-reporting (OV) in European adolescents. Two self-administered computerised 24-h dietary recalls and physical activity data using accelerometry were collected from 1512 adolescents aged 12·5-17·5 years from eight European countries. Objective measurements of height and weight were obtained. BMI was categorised according to Cole/International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) cut-off points. Diet-related attitudes were assessed via self-administered questionnaires. Reported energy intake (EI) was compared with predicted total energy expenditure to identify UR and OV using individual physical activity objective measures. Associations between misreporting and covariates were examined by multilevel logistic regression analyses. Among all, 33·3 % of the adolescents were UR and 15·6 % were OV when considering mean EI. Overweight (OR 3·25; 95 % CI 2·01, 5·27) and obese (OR 4·31; 95 % CI 1·92, 9·65) adolescents had higher odds for UR, whereas underweight individuals were more likely to over-report (OR 1·67; 95 % CI 1·01, 2·76). Being content with their own figures (OR 0·61; 95 % CI 0·41, 0·89) decreased the odds for UR, whereas frequently skipping breakfast (OR 2·14; 95 % CI 1·53, 2·99) was linked with higher odds for UR. Those being worried about gaining weight (OR 0·55; 95 % CI 0·33, 0·92) were less likely to OV. Weight status and psychosocial weight-related factors were found to be the major correlates of misreporting. Misreporting may reflect socially desirable answers and low ability to report own dietary intakes, but also may reflect real under-eating in an attempt to lose weight or real over-eating to reflect higher intakes due to growth spurts. Factors influencing misreporting should be identified in youths to clarify or better understand diet-disease associations.

More physically active and leaner adolescents have higher energy intake.

OBJECTIVE: To test whether youths who engage in vigorous physical activity are more likely to have lean bodies while ingesting relatively large amounts of energy. For this purpose, we studied the associations of both physical activity and adiposity with energy intake in adolescents. STUDY DESIGN: The study subjects were adolescents who participated in 1 of 2 cross-sectional studies, the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence (HELENA) study (n = 1450; mean age, 14.6 years) or the European Youth Heart Study (EYHS; n = 321; mean age, 15.6 years). Physical activity was measured by accelerometry, and energy intake was measured by 24-hour recall. In the HELENA study, body composition was assessed by 2 or more of the following methods: skinfold thickness, bioelectrical impedance analysis, plus dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry or air-displacement plethysmography in a subsample. In the EYHS, body composition was assessed by skinfold thickness. RESULTS: Fat mass was inversely associated with energy intake in both studies and using 4 different measurement methods (P ≤ .006). Overall, fat-free mass was positively associated with energy intake in both studies, yet the results were not consistent across measurement methods in the HELENA study. Vigorous physical activity in the HELENA study (P < .05) and moderate physical activity in the EYHS (P < .01) were positively associated with energy intake. Overall, results remained unchanged after adjustment for potential confounding factors, after mutual adjustment among the main exposures (physical activity and fat mass), and after the elimination of obese subjects, who might tend to underreport energy intake, from the analyses. CONCLUSION: Our data are consistent with the hypothesis that more physically active and leaner adolescents have higher energy intake than less active adolescents with larger amounts of fat mass.

DNA methylation of the LY86 gene is associated with obesity, insulin resistance, and inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Previous genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified a large number of genetic variants for obesity and its related traits, representing a group of potential key genes in the etiology of obesity. Emerging evidence suggests that epigenetics may play an important role in obesity. It has not been explored whether the GWAS-identified loci contribute to obesity through epigenetics (e.g., DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) methylation) in addition to genetics. METHOD: A multi-stage cross-sectional study was designed. We did a literature search and identified 117 genes discovered by GWAS for obesity and its related traits. Then we analyzed whether the methylation levels of these genes were also associated with obesity in two genome-wide methylation panels. We examined an initial panel of seven adolescent obese cases and seven age-matched lean controls, followed by a second panel of 48 adolescent obese cases and 48 age- and gender-matched lean controls. The validated CpG sites were further replicated in two independent replication panels of youth (46 vs. 46 and 230 cases vs. 413 controls, respectively) and a general population of youth, including 703 healthy subjects. RESULTS: One CpG site in the lymphocyte antigen 86 (LY86) gene, which showed higher methylation in the obese in both the initial (p = .009) and second genome-wide DNA methylation panel (p = .008), was further validated in both replication panels (meta p = .00016). Moreover, in the general population of youth, the methylation levels of this region were significantly correlated with adiposity indices (p ≤ .02), insulin resistance (p = .001), and inflammatory markers (p < .001). CONCLUSION: By focusing on recent GWAS findings in genome-wide methylation profiles, we identified a solid association between LY86 gene DNA methylation and obesity.

A genome-wide methylation study of severe vitamin D deficiency in African American adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: To test the hypothesis that changes in DNA methylation are involved in vitamin D deficiency-related immune cell regulation using an unbiased genome-wide approach combined with a genomic and epigenomic integrative approach. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a genome-wide methylation scan using the Illumina HumanMethylation 27 BeadChip on leukocyte DNA of 11 cases of vitamin D deficiency (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] ≤ 25 nmol/L) and 11 age-matched controls ([25(OH)D] > 75 nmol/L); the subjects were African American normal-weight (body mass index <85th percentile) males aged 14-19 years. The Limma package was used to analyze each CpG site for differential methylation between cases and controls. To correct for multiple testing, the set of raw P values were converted to false discovery rates (FDRs). We also compared our findings with the recent data from Genome-Wide Association Studies of circulating 25(OH)D levels and then performed a permutation test to examine whether the "double hit" genes were randomly enriched. RESULTS: A total of 79 CpG sites achieved raw P < .001. Of the 79 CpG sites, 2 CpG sites survived multiple testing: cg16317961 (raw P = 3.5 × 10(-6), FDR = 0.078, in MAPRE2) and cg04623955 (raw P = 5.9 × 10(-6), FDR = 0.078, in DIO3). Furthermore, 3 out of the 4 genes previously identified in the 2 Genome-Wide Association Studies were also significant at the methylation level (DHCR7: cg07487535, P = .015 and cg10763288, P = .017; CYP2R1: cg25454890, P = .040; CYP24A1: cg18956481, P = .022), reflecting significant enrichment (P = .0098). CONCLUSION: Severe vitamin D deficiency is associated with methylation changes in leukocyte DNA. The genomic and epigenomic approach reinforce the crucial roles played by the DHCR7, CYP2R1, and CYP24A1 genes in vitamin D metabolism.

Association between self-reported sleep duration and dietary quality in European adolescents.

Evidence has grown supporting the role for short sleep duration as an independent risk factor for weight gain and obesity. The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between sleep duration and dietary quality in European adolescents. The sample consisted of 1522 adolescents (aged 12.5-17.5 years) participating in the European multi-centre cross-sectional 'Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence' study. Sleep duration was estimated by a self-reported questionnaire. Dietary intake was assessed by two 24 h recalls. The Diet Quality Index for Adolescents with Meal index (DQI-AM) was used to calculate overall dietary quality, considering the components dietary equilibrium, dietary diversity, dietary quality and a meal index. An average sleep duration of ≥ 9 h was classified as optimal, between 8 and 9 h as borderline insufficient and < 8 h as insufficient. Sleep duration and the DQI-AM score were positively associated (ß = 0.027, r 0.130, P< 0.001). Adolescents with insufficient (62.05 (sd 14.18)) and borderline insufficient sleep (64.25 (sd 12.87)) scored lower on the DQI-AM than adolescents with an optimal sleep duration (64.57 (sd 12.39)) (P< 0.001; P= 0.018). The present study demonstrated in European adolescents that short sleep duration was associated with a lower dietary quality. This supports the hypothesis that the health consequences of insufficient sleep may be mediated by the relationship of insufficient sleep to poor dietary quality.

Greater fructose consumption is associated with cardiometabolic risk markers and visceral adiposity in adolescents.

Though adolescents consume more fructose than any other age group, the relationship between fructose consumption and markers of cardiometabolic risk has not been established in this population. We determined associations of total fructose intake (free fructose plus one-half the intake of free sucrose) with cardiometabolic risk factors and type of adiposity in 559 adolescents aged 14-18 y. Fasting blood samples were measured for glucose, insulin, lipids, adiponectin, and C-reactive protein. Diet was assessed with 4-7 24-h recalls and physical activity (PA) was determined by accelerometry. Fat-free soft tissue (FFST) mass and fat mass were measured by DXA. The s.c. abdominal adipose tissue (SAAT) and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) were assessed using MRI. Multiple linear regression, adjusting for age, sex, race, Tanner stage, FFST mass, fat mass, PA, energy intake, fiber intake, and socioeconomic status, revealed that fructose intake was associated with VAT (ß = 0.13; P = 0.03) but not SAAT (P = 0.15). Significant linear upward trends across tertiles of fructose intake were observed for systolic blood pressure, fasting glucose, HOMA-IR, and C-reactive protein after adjusting for the same covariates (all P-trend < 0.04). Conversely, significant linear downward trends across tertiles of fructose intake were observed for plasma HDL-cholesterol and adiponectin (both P-trend < 0.03). When SAAT was added as a covariate, these trends persisted (all P-trend < 0.05). However, when VAT was included as a covariate, it attenuated these trends (all P-trend > 0.05). In adolescents, higher fructose consumption is associated with multiple markers of cardiometabolic risk, but it appears that these relationships are mediated by visceral obesity.

Micro- and macro-level correlates of adiposity in children.

CONTEXT: Recently, studies using a social ecological perspective have identified important micro- and macro-level risk factors for excessive adiposity in youth. Although considerable research exists examining these relationships, few studies have applied a socioecological approach to simultaneously examine both micro- and macro-level factors in young children while objectively assessing adiposity via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). OBJECTIVE: To examine race and sex differences in adiposity measured by DXA in a large sample of young children and to identify both micro- and macro-level correlates of adiposity. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Elementary school children (N = 495) from the southeastern United States participated. Anthropometrics, percentage body fat via DXA, and psychosocial variables via questionnaire were assessed in the Fall of 2003. Community-level sociodemographic data and built-environment variables via geographic information system were collected in Spring 2009. Data analyses were completed in the Spring of 2010. RESULTS: Percentage body fat in white children was higher than in nonwhite children. Higher percentage body fat and poorer cardiovascular fitness were found in females compared with males. Percentage body fat was higher in children who had lower athletic competence and lived in neighborhoods with higher percentages of minority residents. CONCLUSION: This study provides preliminary support for the social-ecological model to explain variance in adiposity in children. Developers of health promotion programs for children living in minority neighborhoods should consider factors at multiple levels of the ecological model when designing and implementing programs.

Magnesium Intake, C-Reactive Protein, and Muscle Mass in Adolescents.

Background: Adult studies have suggested that magnesium intake may regulate C-reactive protein (CRP) and muscle mass, known risk factors for cardiometabolic diseases. Given the large deficiencies in magnesium intake in adolescents, we aimed to investigate sex and race differences in dietary magnesium intake and test the hypothesis that lower magnesium intake is associated with higher CRP and lower muscle mass. Methods: A total of 766 black and white adolescents, 14 to 18 years old (51% black; 50% female) were previously recruited. Diet was assessed with four to seven independent 24-h recalls. Body composition was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. High-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP), leptin, resistin, and adiponectin were measured using fasting blood samples by ELISA. Results: There were sex and race differences in the daily consumption of magnesium. The average daily magnesium intakes were 200.66 ± 7.09 mg and 205.03 ± 7.05 mg for males and females, respectively, far below the recommended amounts of 410 mg for males and 360 mg for females. White subjects (217.95 ± 6.81 mg/day) consumed more than black subjects (187.75 ± 6.92 mg/day). Almost none of the adolescents met the recommendations. Adjusted multiple linear regressions revealed that lower magnesium intake was associated with higher hs-CRP and lower fat-free mass (FFM) (p-values < 0.05). Higher hs-CRP was associated with lower FFM. Moreover, an interaction between magnesium intake and hs-CRP on FFM was identified (p-value < 0.05). Lower magnesium intake amplified the inverse relationships between hs-CRP and FFM (p-values < 0.05). Conclusion: Magnesium consumption in our adolescents was far below daily recommended levels with male and black subjects consuming less than female and white subjects. Lower magnesium intake was associated with higher CRP and lower muscle mass. Low magnesium intake may also augment the inverse relationship between CRP and FFM.

Adolescent obesity, bone mass, and cardiometabolic risk factors.

OBJECTIVE: To compare bone mass between overweight adolescents with and without cardiometabolic risk factors (CMR). Associations of bone mass with CMR and adiposity were also determined. STUDY DESIGN: Adolescents (aged 14 to 18 years) who were overweight were classified as healthy (n = 55), having one CMR (1CMR; n = 46), or having two or more CMR (≥2CMR; n = 42). CMRs were measured with standard methods and defined according to pediatric definitions of metabolic syndrome. Total body bone mass, fat mass, and fat-free soft tissue mass were measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Visceral adipose tissue and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue were assessed with magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS: After controlling for age, sex, race, height, and fat-free soft tissue mass, the healthy group had 5.4% and 6.3% greater bone mass than the 1CMR and ≥2CMR groups, respectively (both P values <.04). With multiple linear regression, adjusting for the same co-variates, visceral adipose tissue (ß = -0.22), waist circumference (ß = -0.23), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (ß = -0.23), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level (ß = 0.22) were revealed to be associated with bone mass (all P values <.04). There was a trend toward a significant inverse association between bone mass and fasting glucose level (P = .056). No relations were found between bone mass and fat mass, subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue, blood pressure, or triglyceride level. CONCLUSION: Being overweight with metabolic abnormalities, particularly insulin resistance, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level, and visceral adiposity, may adversely influence adolescent bone mass.

Leukocyte telomere length in healthy Caucasian and African-American adolescents: relationships with race, sex, adiposity, adipokines, and physical activity.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationships of race, sex, adiposity, adipokines, and physical activity to telomere length in adolescents. STUDY DESIGN: Leukocyte telomere length (T/S ratio) was assessed cross-sectionally in 667 adolescents (aged 14-18 years; 48% African-Americans; 51% girls) using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction method. Generalized estimating equations analyses were performed. RESULTS: Telomere length was greater in the African-American adolescents than in the Caucasian adolescents (age- and sex-adjusted T/S ratio ± SE, 1.32 ± 0.01 vs 1.27 ± 0.01: P = .014) and greater in girls than in boys (age- and race-adjusted T/S ratio ± SE, 1.31 ± 0.01 vs 1.27 ± 0.01; P = .007). None of the adiposity or adipokine measures explained a significant proportion of the variance in telomere length. Vigorous physical activity was positively associated with telomere length (adjusted R(2) = 0.019; P = .009) and accounted for 1.9% of the total variance only in girls. CONCLUSIONS: This study, conducted in a biracial adolescent cohort, demonstrated that (1) race and sex differences in telomere length have already emerged during adolescence; (2) adiposity and adipokines are not associated with telomere length at this age; and (3) the antiaging effect of vigorous physical activity may begin in youth, especially in girls.

Adiponectin moderates the relationship between adiposity and leptin in adolescents regardless of gender or race.

OBJECTIVES: To determine gender or race differences in associations between adiposity and leptin, and whether adiponectin moderates these relationships. METHODS: Subjects were 441 adolescents, 14-18 years old (44% black, 56% white; 50% female, 50% male). Percent body fat (%BF) was measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Leptin and adiponectin were measured using immunoassays. RESULTS: Among the four groups (white boys, white girls, black boys and black girls), white girls had the highest adiponectin (p = 0.0017) and black girls had the highest leptin (p = 0.0164). Percent BF and leptin were positively correlated (p = 0.0164). The %BF-leptin relationship was stronger in boys than girls (p < 0.0001). Those with lower adiponectin had a stronger %BF-leptin relationship than those with high adiponectin in the entire sample (p = 0.0220). Statistical models were adjusted for age, race, gender and the interaction between race and gender. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest a protective metabolic interaction for adiponectin and lend additional support for obesity prevention strategies in adolescents.

The influence of physical activity on cardiometabolic biomarkers in youths: a review.

The purposes of this article were to (1): review recent studies of relations between physical activity and cardiometabolic biomarkers of youths (2); highlight areas in which additional research is needed; and (3) make recommendations for preventive interventions. Observational studies show that youths who engage in high amounts of moderate-vigorous physical activity display a more favorable cardiometabolic biomarker profile than youths who engage in lesser amounts of moderate-vigorous physical activity. Intervention studies in obese youths show that favorable changes in biomarkers are produced by moderate-vigorous physical activity doses of 150-180 min/week. However, for nonobese youths, intervention studies suggest that such doses are not effective; higher moderate-vigorous physical activity doses of approximately 300 min/week seem necessary. Continuing a physically active lifestyle from childhood into the adult years will enable people to maintain less end-organ damage and lower rates of morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.

Obesity related methylation changes in DNA of peripheral blood leukocytes.

BACKGROUND: Despite evidence linking obesity to impaired immune function, little is known about the specific mechanisms. Because of emerging evidence that immune responses are epigenetically regulated, we hypothesized that DNA methylation changes are involved in obesity induced immune dysfunction and aimed to identify these changes. METHOD: We conducted a genome wide methylation analysis on seven obese cases and seven lean controls aged 14 to 18 years from extreme ends of the obesity distribution and performed further validation of six CpG sites from six genes in 46 obese cases and 46 lean controls aged 14 to 30 years. RESULTS: In comparison with the lean controls, we observed one CpG site in the UBASH3A gene showing higher methylation levels and one CpG site in the TRIM3 gene showing lower methylation levels in the obese cases in both the genome wide step (P = 5 × 10(-6) and P = 2 × 10(-5) for the UBASH3A and the TRIM3 gene respectively) and the validation step (P = 0.008 and P = 0.001 for the UBASH3A and the TRIM3 gene respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide evidence that obesity is associated with methylation changes in blood leukocyte DNA. Further studies are warranted to determine the causal direction of this relationship as well as whether such methylation changes can lead to immune dysfunction.

FTO variant rs9939609 is associated with body mass index and waist circumference, but not with energy intake or physical activity in European- and African-American youth.

BACKGROUND: Genome-wide association studies found common variants in the fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene associated with adiposity in Caucasians and Asians but the association was not confirmed in African populations. Association of FTO variants with insulin resistance and energy intake showed inconsistent results in previous studies. This study aimed to assess the influence of FTO variant rs9939609 on adiposity, insulin resistance, energy intake and physical activity in European - (EA) and African-American (AA) youth. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study in EA and AA youths. One thousand, nine hundred and seventy-eight youths (48.2% EAs, 47.1% male, mean age 16.5 years) had measures of anthropometry. Percent body fat (%BF) was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SAAT) by magnetic resonance imaging. Energy intake and physical activity were based on self report from up to 7 24-hour recalls. Physical activity was also measured by accelerometry. RESULTS: FTO rs9939609 was significantly associated with body mass index (BMI) (P = 0.01), weight (P = 0.03) and waist circumference (P = 0.04), with per-allele effects of 0.4 kg/m2, 1.3 kg and 0.8 cm, respectively. No significant association was found between rs9939609 and %BF, VAT, SAAT or insulin resistance (P > 0.05), or between rs9939609 and energy intake or vigorous physical activity (P > 0.05). No significant interactions of rs9939609 with ethnicity, gender, energy intake or physical activity were observed (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The FTO variant rs9939609 is modestly associated with BMI and waist circumference, but not with energy intake or physical activity. Moreover, these effects were similar for EAs and AAs. Improved understanding of the effect of the FTO variant will offer new insights into the etiology of excess adiposity.

Common variants near melanocortin 4 receptor are associated with general and visceral adiposity in European- and African-American youth.

OBJECTIVE: Recent genome-wide association studies found common variants near the melanocortin 4 receptor gene associated with obesity. This study aimed to assess the influence of the identified single nucleotide polymorphisms rs17782313 and rs17700633 on general and visceral adiposity in European- and African-American youth. STUDY DESIGN: In 1890 youth (49.1% European-American, 45.6% male, mean age 16.7 years), we examined the associations of the rs17782313 and rs17700633 with anthropometry, percent body fat, visceral adipose tissue, and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue. Interaction of the single nucleotide polymorphisms with ethnicity or sex was investigated and haplotype analyses conducted. RESULTS: Rs17782313 was significantly associated with weight (P = .02) and waist circumference (P = .03) in all subjects and with body mass index (P = .002) in females. In females rs17700633 was significantly associated with percent body fat (P = .001), visceral adipose tissue (P < .001), and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (P < .001). Rs17700633 was significantly associated with fasting insulin and homeostasis model assessment, but the significance attenuated after adjustment for percent body fat. These findings were confirmed by haplotype analysis. No significant interactions of the variants with ethnicity were found for any of these phenotypes. CONCLUSIONS: The relatively large effect of these common variants near melanocortin 4 receptor on general and visceral adiposity in childhood, especially in girls, could prove helpful in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of obesity in early life.

Race, Gender, Family Structure, Socioeconomic Status, Dietary Patterns, and Cardiovascular Health in Adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Dietary patterns represent a broad picture of food and nutrient consumption and may be more predictive of health outcomes than individual foods and nutrients. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the relations among race, gender, family structure, parental socioeconomic status (SES), dietary patterns, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) profiles among adolescents in the southeastern region of the United States. METHODS: A total of 743 adolescents from a cross-sectional study were divided into 4 dietary pattern groups by K-means cluster analysis. Multinomial logistic regression was performed to determine the relations among the parental SES, family structures, and dietary patterns of the adolescents. Associations between dietary patterns and CVD profiles were analyzed by multiple linear regression. RESULTS: Four dietary patterns were derived: "healthy" (17%), "snacks and sweets" (26%), "processed meat" (20%), and "sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) and fried food" (37%). Whites and females were more likely to have a "healthy" dietary pattern (Ps < 0.001). There were significant race/ethnicity differences in family structures, SES, and dietary patterns (Ps < 0.05). In whites, higher mother's education and father's education and occupation were associated with greater likelihood of a "healthy" dietary pattern (Ps < 0.05). Stay-at-home mother was associated with less likelihood of an "SSB and fried food" pattern (P = 0.023). In blacks, higher mother's occupation, father's education, and living with both parents were associated with more likelihood of a "healthy" dietary pattern (Ps < 0.05). Stay-at-home father was associated with less likelihood of the "snacks and sweets" (P = 0.025) and "SSB and fried food" dietary patterns (P = 0.044). Overall, adolescents with poor dietary patterns exhibited higher percentage body fat, waist circumference, systolic blood pressure, fasting insulin, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, C-reactive protein, and total triglyceride (Ps < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that family structure, parental working status, and SES are associated with the diet quality in adolescents. Moreover, "snacks and sweets," "processed meat," and "SSB and fried food" dietary patterns are all associated with worse CVD risk profiles.