A survey for selected avian viral pathogens in backyard chicken farms in Finland.

Backyard poultry are regaining popularity in Europe and increased interest in the health and management of non-commercial farms has resulted. Furthermore, commercial poultry farm owners have become concerned about the risk represented by contagious avian diseases that nearby backyard poultry could transmit. Fifty-one voluntary backyard chicken farms were visited between October 2012 and January 2013. Blood samples and individual cloacal swabs were collected from 457 chickens. In 44 farms (86%), one or more of the tested chickens had antibodies against avian encephalomyelitis and chicken infectious anaemia viruses, 24 farms (47%) had chickens seropositive for infectious bronchitis virus, 10 farms (20%) had chickens seropositive for infectious bursal disease virus, six farms (12%) had chickens seropositive for infectious laryngotracheitis virus and two farms (5.4%) had chickens seropositive for avian influenza virus. No farms had chickens seropositive for Newcastle disease virus. Of the 51 farms, five (10%) had chickens positive for coronavirus reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. A phylogenetic analysis showed that all backyard chicken coronaviruses collected were QX type infectious bronchitis viruses. All chickens tested for avian influenza and Newcastle disease viruses using real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction were negative. To our knowledge, there is no evidence to date to suggest that these diseases would have been transmitted between commercial and non-commercial flocks.

A combination of MLST and CRISPR typing reveals dominant Campylobacter jejuni types in organically farmed laying hens.

AIM: To elucidate the Campylobacter jejuni population in organically farmed laying hens in Finland, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) was combined with characterization of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) sequences. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 147 Camp. jejuni isolates, collected from organically farmed laying hens from 18 farms in 2003-2004, were previously analysed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. In the present study, subsets of the isolates were further analysed by MLST and CRISPR sequences. Fourteen STs were found by MLST. ST-50 (27%, 7/18 farms), ST-3272 (20%, 8/18 farms), ST-45 (12%, 7/18 farms) and ST-356 (12%, 5/18 farms) were the most common STs. CRISPR types were identical among all isolates of ST-50 (ST-21 clonal complex (CC)) and the most variable among ST-45 (ST-45 CC). CONCLUSIONS: ST-3272 (UA), a common ST in this study, has been infrequently detected in other hosts. Other major STs (ST-50 and ST-45) have been common in several hosts such as conventional poultry and bovines. CRISPR typing provided additional discrimination between isolates of certain dominant STs and could be useful in further epidemiological studies. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study gives new information about MLST and CRISPR types of Camp. jejuni among organically farmed laying hens.

Campylobacter jejuni prevalence and hygienic quality of retail bovine ground meat in Finland.

UNLABELLED: Detection of common genotypes of Campylobacter jejuni among Finnish human and bovine isolates, suggested that bovines may be a source for zoonotic Camp. jejuni infection. In addition, a Finnish epidemiological study implied the tasting and eating raw or undercooked beef as risk factors for acquiring campylobacteriosis. We therefore performed a study on the occurrence of Camp. jejuni in retail bovine ground meat in Helsinki by the use of both cultivation and PCR. During 2011 and 2012, 175 bovine ground meat samples were collected. None of the samples were Campylobacter positive by cultivation, and only one sample (0.6%) was Camp. jejuni positive by the use of PCR on template extracted directly from ground meat. According to our findings, Finnish bovine ground meat is an unlikely source for human campylobacteriosis. Additionally, the hygienic quality of bovine ground meat at retail level was screened and found to be good when monitored by aerobic micro-organisms, total thermotolerant coliforms and Eshericha coli. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study provides the first data on the occurrence of the zoonotic pathogen Campylobacter jejuni in Finnish bovine ground meat. This knowledge is important as part of future Campylobacter risk assessment, management and monitoring programs, particularly when assessing the relative attribution of poultry, pork and bovine meat to the burden of human campylobacteriosis. According to our results, Finnish bovine ground meat at retail level is of good hygienic quality.

Absence of tetracycline resistance in Campylobacter coli isolates from Finnish finishing pigs treated with chlortetracycline.

AIMS: To determine whether therapeutic treatment of pigs with chlortetracycline affects the susceptibility of their Campylobacter isolates for tetracycline, ciprofloxacin and erythromycin. METHODS AND RESULTS: Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and presence of a tetracycline resistance gene tet(O) were studied in Campylobacter collected before, during and after chlortetracycline treatment. Tetracycline MICs and the presence of tet(O) for additional Campylobacter coli isolates collected previously from seven farrowing farms were also determined. Isolates with ciprofloxacin MICs above the epidemiological cut-off value (ECOFF) were subtyped by flaA restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Tetracycline MICs of 221 Camp. coli isolates remained under the ECOFF at all sampling stages as well as the MICs for 63 isolates from the other farms. The ciprofloxacin MIC was above the ECOFF for 22% of the isolates, and one Camp. coli isolate had an erythromycin MIC above the ECOFF. None of the studied 300 Campylobacter isolates from nine herds carried tet(O). flaA-RFLP typing revealed the heterogeneity of Camp. coli isolates with high ciprofloxacin MICs. CONCLUSION: Use of chlortetracycline did not increase the MIC values for the antimicrobials studied. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study demonstrated that susceptibility of Camp. coli isolates is not affected by chlortetracycline therapy if tet(O) is not present in Camp. coli population.

Lipooligosaccharide locus classes are associated with certain Campylobacter jejuni multilocus sequence types.

The lipooligosaccharide (LOS) locus class was determined using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in 335 Finnish Campylobacter jejuni strains isolated from humans, poultry and bovines with known multilocus sequence types. The results revealed an association between clonal complexes/sequence types (STs) and LOS locus classes. Based on these results, we further predicted the LOS locus classes distribution among the STs of 209 additional C. jejuni strains from Finnish human domestically acquired infections. Non-sialylated LOS locus classes were associated with STs that comprised ≈55% of patient strains. Sialylated LOS locus classes A and B were associated with STs infrequently isolated, whereas class C was correlated with the ST-21 complex, found in ≈14% of human strains. A combination of the LOS locus class and multilocus sequence type may provide new information on the epidemiology and association of C. jejuni strains with certain disease outcomes.

Effect of temperature and antimicrobial resistance on survival of Campylobacter jejuni in well water: application of the Weibull model.

AIMS: The aims of this study were to measure the survival of two Campylobacter jejuni strains and their in vitro-challenged antimicrobial-resistant variants in well water, to evaluate the effects of antimicrobial resistance on survival and to develop a mathematical model for predicting the survival of Camp. jejuni in well water in the temperature range from 4 to 25°C. METHODS AND RESULTS: The survival in log CFU ml⁻¹ of two Camp. jejuni strains and their antimicrobial-resistant variants was studied in well water stored at 4, 10, 15, 20 and 25°C. At 4°C, the estimated 4-log CFU ml⁻¹ decrease in ciprofloxacin-resistant variant ATCC33560CIP32 was 55·2 days, significantly longer (P < 0·05) than that of resistant variant 49/7RATCIP32 (the estimated 4-log CFU ml⁻¹ decrease was 29·9 days). The respective times for the wild-type strains were 49·8 and 60·4 days. The decrease in counts of Camp. jejuni was most dependent on temperature, because at 4°C, the estimated t (4D) varied from 29·9 to 60·4 days and at 25°C from 3·7 to 5·7 days. CONCLUSIONS: Campylobacter jejuni survived in well water for long periods, especially at 4°C, and the effect of ciprofloxacin resistance on fitness and survival was strain and temperature dependent. Weibull model was found to fit the data in the temperatures from 4 to 25°C. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: In water environment Camp. jejuni is exposed to a wide spectrum of temperatures, which affects its survival and potential to cause waterborne infections. Antimicrobial resistance in Camp. jejuni is increasing, and minor data exist on the effect of antimicrobial resistance on the survival of Camp. jejuni. Water is an important source of campylobacteriosis; thus, we need to have modelling data to predict the survival characteristics of these organisms in water.

An extensive gastroenteritis outbreak after drinking-water contamination by sewage effluent, Finland.

An inappropriate cross-connection between sewage- and drinking-water pipelines contaminated tap water in a Finnish town, resulting in an extensive waterborne gastroenteritis outbreak in this developed country. According to a database and a line-list, altogether 1222 subjects sought medical care as a result of this exposure. Seven pathogens were found in patient samples of those who sought treatment. To establish the true disease burden from this exposure, we undertook a population-based questionnaire investigation with a control population, infrequently used to study waterborne outbreaks. The study covered three areas, contaminated and uncontaminated parts of the town and a control town. An estimated 8453 residents fell ill during the outbreak, the excess number of illnesses being 6501. Attack rates were 53% [95% confidence interval (CI) 49.5-56.4] in the contaminated area, 15.6% (95% CI 13.1-18.5) in the uncontaminated area and 6.5% (95% CI 4.8-8.8) in the control population. Using a control population allowed us to differentiate baseline morbidity from the observed morbidity caused by the water contamination, thus enabling a more accurate estimate of the disease burden of this outbreak.

Association of Campylobacter jejuni Cj0859c gene (fspA) variants with different C. jejuni multilocus sequence types.

Cj0859c variants fspA1 and fspA2 from 669 human, poultry, and bovine Campylobacter jejuni strains were associated with certain hosts and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) types. Among the human and poultry strains, fspA1 was significantly (P < 0.001) more common than fspA2. FspA2 amino acid sequences were the most diverse and were often truncated.

Decreasing trend of overlapping multilocus sequence types between human and chicken Campylobacter jejuni isolates over a decade in Finland.

We describe the long-term multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis of the population structure and dynamics of 454 Finnish human Campylobacter jejuni isolates, as well as 208 chicken isolates, collected during the mid-1990s to 2007. The sequence type clonal complexes (ST CC) ST-45 CC, ST-21 CC, and ST-677 CC were the most common ones found among all isolates, and they covered 73.9% of all isolates. The ST-283 CC also was found frequently among chicken isolates (8.2%). The predominant STs among all isolates were ST-45, ST-50, and ST-677. ST-137 and ST-230 were common among human isolates, and ST-267 was found more frequently among chicken isolates than human isolates. The ST-45 CC was significantly associated with chicken isolates (P < 0.01), whereas the ST-21 CC was associated with human isolates (P < 0.001). The ST-677 CC was not associated with any host (P = 0.5), and an opposite temporary trend of this complex was seen among chicken and human isolates, with an increase in the former and a decrease in the latter during the study period. Furthermore, the ST-22 and ST-48 CCs were significantly associated with human isolates (P < 0.01), but neither of the CCs was found in chicken isolates. The annual overlap between STs from human and chicken isolates decreased from 76% at the beginning of the study to 58% at the end. Our results suggest that the importance of chicken as a reservoir for strains associated with human infections has declined despite the consumption of domestic chicken meat increasing during the follow-up period by 83%.

Shedding of Campylobacter spp. in Finnish cattle on dairy farms.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to determine variation of prevalence throughout a year, colonization levels and genotypes of Campylobacter jejuni in Finnish dairy cattle herds. METHODS AND RESULTS: Faecal samples and tank milk samples from three dairy cattle herds were taken five times, and swab samples from drinking troughs once during a 1-year sampling period. The samples were enriched in Bolton broth and subsequently spread on mCCDA. Isolates were then subtyped by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis using SmaI. Campylobacter jejuni was detected in 169 of the 340 faecal samples and in one drinking trough sample. Prevalences between herds and sampling times varied widely. The faecal levels of C. jejuni were mainly low. Between one and four SmaI subtypes were identified from each herd per sampling. Two SmaI subtypes persisted in two of the herds throughout the study. CONCLUSIONS: Dairy cattle can be a long-term reservoir of C. jejuni subtypes similar to clinical isolates. Differences in the colonization potential among C. jejuni strains as well as in the resistance to campylobacter colonization among animals are possible. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The study provides data on contamination dynamics, colonization levels and the persistence of C. jejuni in dairy cattle.

A foodborne outbreak due to Cryptosporidium parvum in Helsinki, November 2008.

We report the first foodborne outbreak caused by Cryptosporidium parvum in Finland. The outbreak occurred among personnel of the Public Works Department in Helsinki, who had eaten in the same canteen. 72 persons fell ill with diarrhoea, none was hospitalised. Four faecal samples obtained from 12 ill persons were positive for Cryptosporidium by an antigen identification assay and microscopy. The vehicle of infection could not be identified with certainty but a salad mixture was suspected.

Occurrence and species level diagnostics of Campylobacter spp., enteric Helicobacter spp. and Anaerobiospirillum spp. in healthy and diarrheic dogs and cats.

In order to study the occurrence and co-infection of different species of Campylobacter, enteric Helicobacter and Anaerobiospirillum in dogs and cats and define a possible association between these microrganisms and gastrointestinal disorders, 190 dogs and 84 cats, either healthy or with diarrhea, were sampled between 2002 and 2003. Thirty-three C. upsaliensis, 17 C. jejuni, 2 C. helveticus, 1 C. lari isolates from dogs and 14 C. helveticus, 7 C. jejuni, 6 C. upsaliensis isolates from cats were identified using species-specific PCR and phenotypic tests. Whole cell protein profile analysis, phenotypic tests, PCR-RFLP of gyrB and a phylogenetic study of partial groEL and 16S rRNA sequences were used to identify 37 H. bilis, 22 H. canis and 14 H. cinaedi in dogs and 12 H. canis, 5 H. bilis and 2 H. cinaedi in cats. Whole cell protein profile analysis, phenotypic tests and species-specific PCR of 16S rRNA were used to identify 14 A. succiniciproducens, 12 A. thomasii isolates and one unidentified Anaerobiospirillum sp. isolate in dogs and 3 A. thomasii isolates in cats. Fifty-two animals (19%) were positive for the isolation of more than one genus. No significant statistical correlation was found between any isolates of Campylobacter, Helicobacter or Anaerobiospirillum spp. or the various co-infection rates, and the presence of diarrhea in either dogs or cats. Campylobacter isolates were also tested for antibiotic resistance using the agar dilution method.

Evaluation of immunofluorescence microscopy and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in asymptomatic dogs.

The performance of immunofluorescence microscopy (IF) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in canine feces was evaluated. IF and Cryptosporidium ELISA detected 10(5)oocysts/g, while the detection limit for Giardia ELISA was 10(4)cysts/g. The Cryptosporidium ELISA showed 94% specificity but only 71% sensitivity. The Giardia ELISA correlated well with IF (sensitivity 100%, specificity 96%) and was capable of detecting animal specific Giardia duodenalis genotypes. Visual interpretation appeared appropriate for assessment of ELISA results. The proportion of positive samples and possible zoonotic character of Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in 150 asymptomatic Finnish dogs from the Helsinki area were studied. The overall proportion of dogs positive for Cryptosporidium was 5% (7/150) and that for Giardia 5% (8/150). In dogs < or =12 months old, the corresponding proportions were 17% and 19% (n=36). Sequence analyses of the 18S rDNA gene identified the isolates as Cryptosporidium canis and animal specific genotypes of G. duodenalis (assemblages C-E), indicating restricted risk of zoonotic transmission.

Campylobacter in Finnish organic laying hens in autumn 2003 and spring 2004.

A total of 642 fecal samples and 360 table eggs from Finnish organic laying hens were collected in autumn 2003 (19 farms) and spring 2004 (17 farms) and studied for the presence of Campylobacter. In autumn, 84% of the farms were positive for Campylobacter and in spring, 76%. The percentage of positive samples within a flock varied between 5 and 100%. In addition, Campylobacter was isolated in a single eggshell sample. Campylobacter jejuni was the species isolated most often, although Campylobacter coli was detected on 3 farms in autumn and on 4 farms in spring. KpnI pulsed-field gel electrophoresis genotyping revealed a high level of diversity among the isolates; 47 different patterns were detected among a total of 162 isolates studied. On most of the farms, the genotypes identified in autumn and spring were different, also indicating temporal diversity among colonizing isolates. However, some predominant persistent genotypes were also detected among the isolates. These results suggest that the pool of colonizing isolates may include both variants with capability for persistent intestinal colonization in hens as well as variants with short-term colonization characteristics. In antimicrobial susceptibility testing, the majority of isolates were susceptible to ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, ampicillin, and nalidixic acid. On 2 farms, isolates resistant to nalidixic acid and to ciprofloxacin were detected. In conclusion, Finnish organic laying hens are often colonized by a diversity of Campylobacter pulsed-field gel electrophoresis genotypes.

Strain and host characteristics of Campylobacter jejuni infections in Finland.

The relative importance of different risk-factors for Campylobacter infections and the role of bacterial strain and host characteristics are uncertain. Swimming in natural sources of water was recently described as a novel independent risk-factor for domestically-acquired Campylobacter infections. The present study investigated exposure factors and demographical characteristics (collected in a questionnaire), and determined whether Campylobacter jejuni serotypes could be linked to each other or to the severity of the disease in domestically-acquired sporadic C. jejuni infections during a seasonal peak in Finland. Swimming was associated positively with an age of

Campylobacteriosis: the role of poultry meat.

The incidence of human infections caused by Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, the main bacterial agents of gastrointestinal disease, has been increasing worldwide. Here, we review the role of poultry as a source and reservoir for Campylobacter. Contamination and subsequent colonization of broiler flocks at the farm level often lead to transmission of Campylobacter along the poultry production chain and contamination of poultry meat at retail. Yet Campylobacter prevalence in poultry, as well as the contamination level of poultry products, vary greatly between different countries so there are differences in the intervention strategies that need to be applied. Temporal patterns in poultry do not always coincide with those found in human infections. Studies in rural and urban areas have revealed differences in Campylobacter infections attributed to poultry, as poultry seems to be the predominant reservoir in urban, but not necessarily in rural, settings. Furthermore, foreign travel is considered a major risk factor in acquiring the disease, especially for individuals living in the northern European countries. Intervention strategies aimed at reducing Campylobacter colonization in poultry and focused at the farm level have been successful in reducing the number of Campylobacter cases in several countries. Increasing farm biosecurity and education of consumers are likely to limit the risk of infection. Overall, poultry is an important reservoir and source of human campylobacteriosis, although the contribution of other sources, reservoirs and transmission warrants more research.

Bacterial quality and safety of packaged fresh leafy vegetables at the retail level in Finland.

Consumption of packaged fresh leafy vegetables, which are convenient ready-to-eat products, has increased during the last decade. The number of foodborne outbreaks associated with these products has concurrently increased. In our study, (1) label information, (2) O2/CO2 composition, (3) bacterial quality and (4) safety of 100 fresh leafy vegetables at the retail level were studied in Finland during 2013. Bacterial quality was studied using aerobic bacteria (AB) and coliform bacteria (CB) counts, and searching for the presence of Escherichia coli, Listeria and Yersinia. The safety was studied by the presence of Salmonella, ail-positive Yersinia, stx-positive E. coli (STEC) and Listeria monocytogenes using PCR and culturing. Important label information was unavailable on several packages originating from different companies. The packaging date was missing on all packages and the date of durability on 83% of the packages. Storage temperature was declared on 62% of the packages and 73% of the packages contained information about prewashing. The batch/lot number was missing on 29% of the packages. Very low oxygen (O2) (<1%) and elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) (2-22%) concentrations were measured in all packages labelled to contain a protective atmosphere. O2 and CO2 concentrations varied widely in the rest of the packages. AB and CB counts were high in the leafy vegetable samples varying between 6.2 and 10.6 and 4.2-8.3logcfu/g, respectively. In most of the samples, the AB and CB counts exceeded 10(8) and 10(6)cfu/g, respectively. A positive correlation was observed between the AB and CB counts. E. coli was isolated from 15% of the samples and Yersinia from 33%. L. monocytogenes was isolated from two samples and ail-positive Y. enterocolitica in one. Using PCR, STEC was detected in seven samples, and Salmonella and ail-positive Y. enterocolitica in two samples each. The AB and CB mean values of products originating from different companies varied widely. High AB and CB counts and pathogenic bacteria were detected in ready-to-eat products not needing washing before use. Our study shows that the bacterial quality and safety of packaged fresh leafy vegetables is poor and label information on the packages is inadequate. More studies are needed concerning the impact of a protective atmosphere on bacterial growth, and the impact of washing for removing bacteria.

Zoonotic Public Health Hazards in Backyard Chickens.

Backyard poultry has become increasingly popular in industrialized countries. In addition to keeping chickens for eggs and meat, owners often treat the birds as pets. However, several pathogenic enteric bacteria have the potential for zoonotic transmission from poultry to humans but very little is known about the occurrence of zoonotic pathogens in backyard flocks. The occurrence and the antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella enterica, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes and enteropathogenic Yersinia spp. was studied in 51 voluntary backyard chicken farms in Finland during October 2012 and January 2013. Campylobacter isolates were further characterized by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and the occurrence of ESBL/AmpC-producing E. coli was investigated. The findings from this study indicate that backyard chickens are a reservoir of Campylobacter jejuni strains and a potential source of C. jejuni infection for humans. Backyard chickens can also carry L. monocytogenes, although their role as a primary reservoir is questionable. Campylobacter coli, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Salmonella enterica were only found sporadically in the faecal and environmental samples of backyard poultry in Finland. No Yersinia enterocolitica carrying the virulence plasmid was isolated. All pathogens were highly susceptible to most of the antimicrobials studied. Only a few AmpC- and no ESBL-producing E. coli were found.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Multilocus Sequence Types of Finnish Campylobacter jejuni Isolates from Multiple Sources.

Antimicrobial susceptibility was determined for 805 domestic Campylobacter jejuni isolates obtained from broilers (n = 459), bovines (n = 120), human patients (n = 95), natural waters (n = 80), wild birds (n = 35) and zoo animals/enclosures (n = 16) with known multilocus sequence types (MLST) for 450 isolates. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for erythromycin, tetracycline, streptomycin, gentamicin and the quinolones ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid were determined with the VetMIC method. MICs were compared with MLST types to find possible associations between sequence type and resistance. The proportions of resistant isolates were 5% (broilers), 6.3% (natural waters), 11.4% (wild birds), 11.6% (human patients), 16.7% (bovines) and 31.3% (zoo). The most common resistance among the human and bovine isolates was quinolone resistance alone while resistance to streptomycin alone was most often detected among the broiler isolates and tetracycline resistance was most commonly observed in the wild bird, water and zoo isolates. No or negligible resistance to erythromycin or gentamicin was detected. In all data, 12/26 of the tetracycline-resistant isolates were also resistant to streptomycin (P < 0.001) and the clonal complex (CC) ST-1034 CC showed a high proportion of 75% (9/12) of tetracycline-resistant isolates, most originating from the zoo and broilers with closely associated MLST types from these sources. No association between quinolone resistance and MLST type was seen. The low percentage of resistant isolates among the domestic Campylobacter infections is most probably due to the long-term controlled use of antimicrobials. However, the higher percentage of tetracycline resistance observed among the zoo isolates could present a risk for zoo visitors of acquisition of resistant C. jejuni. The resistance pattern of tetracycline and streptomycin most often found in ST-1034 CC could indicate a common resistance acquisition mechanism commonly present in this CC. Overall, MLST typing was found to be a useful method in recognition of potential genetic lineages associated with resistance.

Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Campylobacter spp. Isolated from Broiler Chicken Meat of Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian Origin at Estonian Retail Level and from Patients with Severe Enteric Infections in Estonia.

The resistance patterns of Campylobacter spp. isolated from retail broiler chicken meat originating either from Estonia, Lithuania or Latvia collected in Estonia were determined. Additionally, in collaboration with the laboratories of several Estonian hospitals, antimicrobial susceptibility patterns were determined for Campylobacter isolates from patients with severe Campylobacter enteric infections. The isolates were identified at the species level by the PCR method. Respectively, 88.8% of the isolates were C. jejuni, and 11.2% were C. coli. In total, 126 Campylobacter isolates of broiler chicken meat and human origin were tested for minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) with the broth microdilution VetMIC(TH) method (National Veterinary Institute; Uppsala, Sweden) for a total of six antimicrobials. Resistance to one or more antimicrobials was detected in 62 (63.3%) of Campylobacter broiler chicken meat isolates and in 20 (71.4%) of human-origin isolates. Large proportions of the broiler chicken meat isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin (60.2%). Multidrug resistance (i.e. to three or more unrelated antimicrobials) was detected in five (5.1%) C. jejuni isolates. Among the human isolates, 20 (71.4%) were resistant to fluoroquinolones, and two (7.1%) C. jejuni isolates exhibited multidrug resistance. The chicken meat isolates of Estonian origin were the most susceptible. However, a high proportion of fluoroquinolone-resistant C. jejuni isolates were found in Latvian and Lithuanian products. The results of this study indicate that the problems caused by the inappropriate use of antimicrobials extend beyond the country in which a food originates; therefore, both domestic and international interventions and agreements are required to implement common policies on antimicrobial usage and to minimize the emergence of Campylobacter drug resistance.