Emotions or cognitions first? Longitudinal relations between executive functions and emotion regulation in childhood.

Executive functions and emotion regulation develop from early childhood to adolescence and are predictive of important psychosocial outcomes. However, despite the correlation between the two regulatory capacities, whether they are prospectively related in school-aged children remains unknown, and the direction of effects is uncertain. In this study, a sample drawn from two birth cohorts in Norway was biennially examined between the ages of 6 and 14 (n = 852, 50.1% girls, 93% Norwegian). Parents completed the Emotion Regulation Checklist, and teachers completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model revealed that improved emotion regulation predicted increased executive functioning to the same extent throughout development, whereas enhanced executive functioning was unrelated to future changes in emotion regulation.

Neurobiological mechanisms of ECT and TMS treatment in depression: study protocol of a multimodal magnetic resonance investigation.

BACKGROUND: Noninvasive neurostimulation treatments are increasingly being used to treat major depression, which is a common cause of disability worldwide. While electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) are both effective in treating depressive episodes, their mechanisms of action are, however, not completely understood. ECT is given under general anesthesia, where an electrical pulse is administered through electrodes placed on the patient's head to trigger a seizure. ECT is used for the most severe cases of depression and is usually not prescribed before other options have failed. With TMS, brain stimulation is achieved through rapidly changing magnetic fields that induce electric currents underneath a ferromagnetic coil. Its efficacy in depressive episodes has been well documented. This project aims to identify the neurobiological underpinnings of both the effects and side effects of the neurostimulation techniques ECT and TMS. METHODS: The study will utilize a pre-post case control longitudinal design. The sample will consist of 150 subjects: 100 patients (bipolar and major depressive disorder) who are treated with either ECT (N = 50) or TMS (N = 50) and matched healthy controls (N = 50) not receiving any treatment. All participants will undergo multimodal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as well as neuropsychological and clinical assessments at multiple time points before, during and after treatment. Arterial spin labeling MRI at baseline will be used to test whether brain perfusion can predict outcomes. Signs of brain disruption, potentiation and rewiring will be explored with resting-state functional MRI, magnetic resonance spectroscopy and multishell diffusion weighted imaging (DWI). Clinical outcome will be measured by clinician assessed and patient reported outcome measures. Memory-related side effects will be investigated, and specific tests of spatial navigation to test hippocampal function will be administered both before and after treatment. Blood samples will be stored in a biobank for future analyses. The observation time is 6 months. Data will be explored in light of the recently proposed disrupt, potentiate and rewire (DPR) hypothesis. DISCUSSION: The study will contribute data and novel analyses important for our understanding of neurostimulation as well as for the development of enhanced and more personalized treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05135897.

Longitudinal relations between impaired executive function and symptoms of psychiatric disorders in childhood.

BACKGROUND: Malfunctioning of executive functions correlates with psychopathology in children. However, the directionality, the extent to which the relation varies for various disorders, and whether prospective relations afford causal interpretations are not known. METHODS: A community sample of Norwegian children (n = 874) was studied biennially from the age of 6 to 14 years. Executive functions were assessed using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function Teacher-report and symptoms of psychopathology were assessed using the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (age 6; parents) and Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (ages 8-14; children and parents). Prospective reciprocal relations were examined using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model that adjusts for all unobserved time-invariant confounders. RESULTS: Even when time-invariant confounders were accounted for, reduced executive functions predicted increased symptoms of depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD) 2 years later, even when previous changes in these symptoms were adjusted for. The level of prediction (B = .83, 95% CI [.37, 1.3]) was not different for different disorders or ages. Conversely, reduced executive functions were predicted by increased symptoms of all disorders (B = .01, 95% CI [.01, .02]). CONCLUSIONS: Reduced executive functioning may be involved in the etiology of depression, anxiety, ADHD, and ODD/CD to an equal extent. Moreover, increased depression, anxiety, ADHD, and ODD/CD may negatively impact executive functioning.

Validity of diagnoses, treatment dates, and rating scales in the Swedish national quality register for electroconvulsive therapy.

BACKGROUND: The Swedish national quality register for electroconvulsive therapy (Q-ECT) contains data on patients receiving treatment with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in Sweden. AIM: This study determined the validity of diagnoses, treatment dates, and rating scales in the Q-ECT by investigating the degree of accordance between data from the Q-ECT and patient records. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From January 2016 to December 2017, 200 treatment series were randomly selected from the Q-ECT. The corresponding patient records were requested from the treating hospitals. Data on the indicative diagnosis, dates for the first and the last ECT session, and rating scales were compared between the Q-ECT and patient records using (i) a strict and (ii) a liberal method of assessment. Using the liberal method, each variable was assessed as accordant if it belonged to the same diagnosis group, or if the dates differed by less than 1 week, or ratings differed by only 1 point on the Clinical Global Impression Scale (CGI- S), or no more than 3 points on the Montgomery Åsberg Depression Rating Scale between the Q-ECT and the patient record. RESULTS: A total of 179 patient records were received. The strict method of assessment showed an accordance of 89% or higher for all studied variables. The liberal method showed an accordance of 95% or higher. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that data on the studied variables in the Q-ECT have high validity. However, limited use of some rating scales makes the results uncertain. Measures can be taken to further improve the data quality.

Developing an internet-delivered intervention targeting residual cognitive symptoms after major depressive disorder: a person-based approach.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive difficulties are rarely addressed after the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). New scalable treatments are needed. To ensure relevance and engagement of novel interventions, there is a need to understand the perspectives of the users. AIM: Explore former depressed adults needs and perspectives during the planning and development of a novel internet-delivered intervention targeting residual cognitive symptoms after MDD. METHOD: The planning phase included exploratory qualitative interviews with former depressed adults (n = 16). In the development phase, a prototype including psychoeducation, attention training and compensatory strategies was tested in think-aloud interviews with former depressed adults (n = 7) and psychologists (n = 4). Data were analysed thematically. RESULTS: Analysis of exploratory interviews identified four themes. Experiences of residual cognitive symptoms consisted of two sub-themes (Everyday life is more demanding; Concerns about cognitive difficulties). Coping with residual cognitive symptoms had two sub-themes (Compensatory strategies; Acceptance). Needs from an intervention consisted of two-subthemes (Need for information; Therapist support). Barriers for engagement consisted of three sub-themes (Being overwhelmed; Not being motivated; Frequent registration). Analysis of think-aloud interviews was organized into three themes: Positive perceptions of content; Concerns regarding content; Perceptions of Layout, Visuals and Navigation. CONCLUSION: The intervention may address concerns and consequences of cognitive difficulties by including psychoeducation, compensatory strategies and elements to increase acceptance and motivation, provided in manageable proportions.

Elevated body weight modulates subcortical volume change and associated clinical response following electroconvulsive therapy.

Background: Obesity is a frequent somatic comorbidity of major depression, and it has been associated with worse clinical outcomes and brain structural abnormalities. Converging evidence suggests that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) induces both clinical improvements and increased subcortical grey matter volume in patients with depression. However, it remains unknown whether increased body weight modulates the clinical response and structural neuroplasticity that occur with ECT. Methods: To address this question, we conducted a longitudinal investigation of structural MRI data from the Global ECT-MRI Research Collaboration (GEMRIC) in 223 patients who were experiencing a major depressive episode (10 scanning sites). Structural MRI data were acquired before and after ECT, and we assessed change in subcortical grey matter volume using FreeSurfer and Quarc. Results: Higher body mass index (BMI) was associated with a significantly lower increase in subcortical grey matter volume following ECT. We observed significant negative associations between BMI and change in subcortical grey matter volume, with pronounced effects in the thalamus and putamen, where obese participants showed increases in grey matter volume that were 43.3% and 49.6%, respectively, of the increases found in participants with normal weight. As well, BMI significantly moderated the association between subcortical grey matter volume change and clinical response to ECT. We observed no significant association between BMI and clinical response to ECT. Limitations: Because only baseline BMI values were available, we were unable to study BMI changes during ECT and their potential association with clinical and grey matter volume change. Conclusion: Future studies should take into account the relevance of body weight as a modulator of structural neuroplasticity during ECT treatment and aim to further explore the functional relevance of this novel finding.

The Effect of Pulse Width on Subjective Memory Impairment and Remission Rate 6 Months After Electroconvulsive Therapy.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to compare the 0.5-millisecond pulse width with broader brief width stimulus and ultrabrief pulse width stimulus in respect to rates of subjective memory impairment and remission 6 months after completion of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). METHODS: This study used data from the Swedish National Quality Register for ECT. Inclusion criteria were bipolar or unipolar depression with or without psychosis, ECT with unilateral electrode placement, and data on the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale-Self-Assessment and the memory item of the Comprehensive Psychopathological Rating Scale (CPRS-M) before and 6 months after ECT. The primary outcomes were the distributions of patients with a maximum of 10 on the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale-Self-Assessment (remission) and a minimum of 2-step worsening in CPRS-M score according to the ECT pulse widths of <0.5, 0.5, and >0.5 millisecond. RESULT: This study included 312 patients. The distributions of patients with remission or a minimum of 2-step worsening on the CPRS-M 6 months after completion of ECT showed no significant differences between the 3 pulse width groups. Older age was associated with a significantly higher rate of remission 6 months after ECT. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of patients, no support was found for the previous research finding of lower rates of subjective memory disturbances 6 months after ultrabrief pulse width ECT in comparison with brief pulse width ECT. Older age was associated with higher remission rate 6 months after ECT. Large randomized studies are required to exclude the possibility of long-term differential effects between pulse widths.

The Incidence of Dental Fracturing in Electroconvulsive Therapy in Sweden.

OBJECTIVES: One adverse effect of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is dental fracture; thus, a bite guard and muscle relaxants are used to prevent it. Earlier research reported varying rates of dental fracture, but there is no large-scale study on the incidence of dental fracture during ECT. This study aimed to examine the incidence of dental fracture during ECT and to investigate whether the incidence differs between different sexes, age groups, diagnosis groups, electrode placements, or number of treatment sessions. METHODS: This register-based study used data from the Swedish national quality register for ECT. All hospitals offering ECT report to this register, and the coverage ratio is about 90%. All registered patients who started an ECT series between January 2012 and January 2019 were included in this study, with the data representing 16,681 individuals, 38,862 series, and 254,906 sessions. RESULTS: Forty-six dental fractures were identified, giving an incidence of dental fracture of 0.2% per series, 0.02% per session, and 0.3% per individual. We did not find any significant associations between dental fracture rates and male or female populations, age, or different diagnosis groups, nor was there any significant difference between dental fracture rates and electrode placement. The mean number of treatments was significantly higher in the dental fracture group than in patients without dental fracture. CONCLUSIONS: There is a minimal risk of dental fracture during ECT. Our findings, together with those of other studies, provide further motivation for the use of a bite guard and muscle relaxant.

Electroconvulsive Therapy in Depression: Improvement in Quality of Life Depending on Age and Sex.

OBJECTIVES: It is uncertain if there are variations in the improvement of quality in life between sexes and age groups after electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). The aim of this study was to investigate how health-related quality of life changed after treatment and to examine differences in the results between sex and age groups. METHODS: This register-based study used data from the Swedish national quality register for ECT. The study population was patients diagnosed with depression who had received ECT. Health-related quality of life was quantified using the 3-level version the EuroQol 5-dimensional questionnaire (EQ-5D 3 L). Analysis of variance was used to compare change in EQ-5D score from pretreatment to posttreatment between sex and age groups. RESULTS: There was a statistically significant improvement in EQ-5D index score and EQ visual analog scale (VAS) score in all patient groups after ECT. The mean improvement in EQ-5D index score and EQ-VAS score ranged from 0.31 to 0.46 and 28.29 to 39.79, respectively. Elderly patients had greater improvement in EQ-5D index score and EQ-VAS score than younger patients. There was no significant difference in improvement between the sexes. The mean improvement in EQ-5D index score was 0.40 for male patients and 0.41 for female patients. CONCLUSIONS: Electroconvulsive therapy had a considerable effect on health-related quality of life in patients with depression of both sexes and all age groups. The improvement was greatest in elderly patients, who more often had psychotic features. More studies are needed to investigate the long-term effects of ECT and to further explain the varying treatment results between elderly and younger patients.

Rehospitalization of Postpartum Depression and Psychosis After Electroconvulsive Therapy: A Population-Based Study With a Matched Control Group.

OBJECTIVES: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is used in some cases of postpartum depression (PPD) and postpartum psychosis (PPP). The risk of relapse for PPD and PPP after ECT is unknown. This study compared the relapse rate after ECT between women who had been treated for PPD and/or PPP and women who had been treated for depression and/or psychosis outside the postpartum period. METHODS: The Swedish National Quality Register for ECT and the Swedish National Patient Register were used to identify women with PPD and/or PPP who had been treated with ECT within 6 months after delivery. For each case, a control (treated with ECT but not postpartum) patient was also selected. A Kaplan-Meier estimator was used to calculate the relapse rate (defined as rehospitalization or suicide) after ECT. Cox regression was used to identify variables associated with relapse. RESULTS: A total of 180 patients were included in each group. The proportions of patients who suffered relapse after 6 months, 1 year, and 2 years were 28%, 31%, and 40% for the postpartum group and 39%, 50%, and 55% for the nonpostpartum group. Treatment with benzodiazepines, several previous psychiatric admissions, and the absence of improvement after ECT were associated with relapse. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of relapse after ECT is lower for patients with PPD and/or PPP than for patients outside the postpartum period, but the risk is nonetheless substantial in both groups.

Subjective Memory Immediately Following Electroconvulsive Therapy.

OBJECTIVES: The aims of the present study were to describe the short-term rate of subjective memory worsening (SMW) and identify factors of importance for SMW in a large clinical sample treated for depression with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). METHODS: This register-based study included 1212 patients from the Swedish National Quality Register for ECT. Subjective memory worsening was defined as a 2-point worsening on the memory item of the Comprehensive Psychopathological Rating Scale from before to within 1 week after treatment. Associations between patient characteristics and treatment factors were examined using logistic regression. RESULTS: Subjective memory worsening was experienced in 26%. It was more common in women than in men (31% vs 18%; P < 0.001) and more common in patients aged 18 to 39 years than in patients 65 years or older (32% vs 22%; P = 0.008). Patients with less subjective memory disturbances before ECT had a greater risk of SMW. Patients in remission after ECT had a lower risk of SMW. A brief pulse width stimulus gave higher risk of SMW compared with ultrabrief pulse (odds ratio, 1.61; 95% confidence interval, 1.05-2.47). CONCLUSIONS: Subjective memory worsening is reported by a minority of patients. However, young women are at risk of experiencing SMW. Ultrabrief pulse width stimulus could be considered for patients treated with unilateral electrode placement who experience SMW. Each patient should be monitored with regard to symptoms and adverse effects, and treatment should be adjusted on an individual basis to maximize the clinical effect and with efforts to minimize the cognitive adverse effects.

Effects of ECT in treatment of depression: study protocol for a prospective neuroradiological study of acute and longitudinal effects on brain structure and function.

BACKGROUND: Major depression can be a serious and debilitating condition. For some patients in a treatment resistant depressive episode, electroconvulsive treatment (ECT) is the only treatment that is effective. Although ECT has shown efficacy in randomized controlled trials, the treatment is still controversial and stigmatized. This can in part be attributed to our lack of knowledge of the mechanisms of action. Some reports also suggest potential harmful effects of ECT treatment and memory related side effects have been documented. METHODS/DESIGN: The present study will apply state of the art radiology through advanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques to investigate structural and functional brain effects of ECT. As a multi-disciplinary collaboration, imaging findings will be correlated to psychiatric response parameters, neuropsychological functioning as well as neurochemical and genetic biomarkers that can elucidate the underlying mechanisms. The aim is to document both treatment effects and potential harmful effects of ECT. SAMPLE: n = 40 patients in a major depressive episode (bipolar and major depressive disorder). Two control groups with n = 15 in each group: age and gender matched healthy volunteers not receiving ECT and patients undergoing electrical cardioversion (ECV) for atrial fibrillation (AF). Observation time: six months. DISCUSSION: The study will contribute to our understanding of the pathophysiology of major depression as well as mechanisms of action for the most effective treatment for the disorder; ECT.

Cognitive functioning and cortisol profiles in first episode major depression.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is often associated with high levels of stress and disturbances in the Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) system, yielding high levels of cortisol, in addition to cognitive dysfunction. Previous studies have shown a relationship between cortisol profile and cognitive functioning in recurrent MDD in general. More specifically, the association between hypercortisolism and cognitive functioning, such as memory and Executive Functioning (EF), and also more recently cortisol suppression has been explored. However, no studies have investigated these relationships in patients diagnosed with first episode MDD. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between cortisol levels before and after the Dexamethasone suppression test (DST) and cognitive function in first episode MDD patients. Twenty-one patients meeting the DSM-IV criteria for a first episode of MDD diagnosis were included in the study. The control group was matched for age, gender and education level. Cortisol was measured in saliva collected with Salivette sampling devices. Saliva samples were collected 4 times during a 24 hours period over two consecutive days: at awakening, after 45 minutes, after 7 hours and at 11 pm. Dexamethasone (1.0 mg) was given orally on Day 1 at 11 pm. The neuropsychological test battery consisted of standardized tests measuring executive functioning (EF) and memory functioning. Cortisol levels did not differ significantly between patients and controls on Day 1, except for the last sample before Dexamethasone administration, where the control group showed higher levels. Both groups showed suppression after Dexamethasone. On Day 2 there was a significant difference between groups at the third sample, showing a significantly lower level in the control group, suggesting that the controls have a more effective suppression profile than the patients. There were no significant correlations between cortisol levels before or after Dexamethasone and cognitive measures. The results indicate impairment on HPA-axis functioning in first episode MDD patients, with less suppression functioning compared to healthy controls, but no relationship between cortisol profile and cognitive functioning in EF or Memory.

Neurocognitive development after pediatric brain tumor - a longitudinal, retrospective cohort study.

Survivors of Pediatric Brain Tumors (PBTs) treated with cranial radiation therapy (CRT) often experience a decline in neurocognitive test scores. Less is known about the neurocognitive development of non-irradiated survivors of PBTs. The aim of this study was to statistically model neurocognitive development after PBT in both irradiated and non-irradiated survivors and to find clinical variables associated with the rate of decline in neurocognitive scores. A total of 151 survivors were included in the study. Inclusion criteria: Diagnosis of PBT between 2001 and 2013 or earlier diagnosis of PBT and turning 18 years of age between 2006 and 2013. Exclusion criteria: Death within a year from diagnosis, neurocutaneous syndromes, severe intellectual disability. Clinical neurocognitive data were collected retrospectively from medical records. Multilevel linear modeling was used to evaluate the rate of decline in neurocognitive measures and factors associated with the same. A decline was found in most measures for both irradiated and non-irradiated survivors. Ventriculo-peritoneal (VP) shunting and treatment with whole-brain radiation therapy (WBRT) were associated with a faster decline in neurocognitive scores. Male sex and supratentorial lateral tumor were associated with lower scores. Verbal learning measures were either stable or improving. Survivors of PBTs show a pattern of decline in neurocognitive scores irrespective of treatment received, which suggests the need for routine screening for neurocognitive rehabilitation. However, survivors treated with WBRT and/or a VP shunt declined at a faster rate and appear to be at the highest risk of negative neurocognitive outcomes and to have the greatest need for neurocognitive rehabilitation.

Seizure Duration and Electroconvulsive Therapy in Major Depressive Disorder.

Importance: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), wherein a generalized epileptic seizure is induced, is a treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD). Currently, it is unclear whether there is an association between seizure length and treatment outcome. Objective: To explore the association between seizure duration, potential confounding variables, and ECT treatment outcome. Design, Setting, and Participants: This population-based cohort study obtained data from the Swedish National Quality Register for ECT. Patients treated for unipolar MDD with unilateral electrode placement between January 1, 2012, and December 31, 2019, were included. The electroencephalographic (EEG) seizure duration from the first ECT treatment session for each patient was used for analysis. Data analyses were performed between March 2021 and May 2024. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was remission, defined as a cutoff score of less than 10 points on the self-assessment version of the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale within 1 week after ECT. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to calculate odds ratios (ORs) between different seizure duration groups. Furthermore, the associations between concomitant use of pharmacological treatments, seizure duration, and remission rate were explored. Results: Among the 6998 patients included, 4229 (60.4%) were female and the mean (SD) age was 55.2 (18.6) years. Overall, 2749 patients (39.3%) achieved remission after ECT. Patients with EEG seizure duration of 60 to 69 seconds had the highest remission rates compared with patients with seizure duration of less than 20 seconds (OR, 2.17; 95% CI, 1.63-2.88; P < .001). Anticonvulsant medications were associated with shorter seizure duration (eg, lamotrigine: ß coefficient [SE], -6.02 [1.08]; P < .001) and lower remission rates (eg, lamotrigine: adjusted OR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.53-0.84; P < .001). Conclusions and Relevance: This study found an association between seizure length and remission from MDD. Use of anticonvulsant medication during ECT was associated with shorter seizure duration and lower remission rates after ECT.

Neurocognitive profiles in treatment-resistant bipolar I and bipolar II disorder depression.

BACKGROUND: The literature on the neuropsychological profiles in Bipolar disorder (BD) depression is sparse. The aims of the study were to assess the neurocognitive profiles in treatment-resistant, acutely admitted BD depression inpatients, to compare the neurocognitive functioning in patients with BD I and II, and to identify the demographic and clinical illness characteristics associated with cognitive functioning. METHODS: Acutely admitted BD I (n = 19) and BD II (n = 32) inpatients who fulfilled the DSM-IV-TR criteria for a major depressive episode were tested with the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB), the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, the National Adult Reading Test, and a battery of clinical measures. RESULTS: Neurocognitive impairments were evident in the BD I and BD II depression inpatients within all MCCB domains. The numerical scores on all MCCB-measures were lower in the BD I group than in the BD II group, with a significant difference on one of the measures, category fluency. 68.4% of the BD I patients had clinically significant impairment (>1.5 SD below normal mean) in two or more domains compared to 37.5% of the BD II patients (p = 0.045). A significant reduction in IQ from the premorbid to the current level was seen in BD I but not BD II patients. Higher age was associated with greater neurocognitive deficits compared to age-adjusted published norms. CONCLUSIONS: A high proportion of patients with therapy-resistant BD I or II depression exhibited global neurocognitive impairments with clinically significant severity. The cognitive impairments were more common in BD I compared to BD II patients, particularly processing speed. These findings suggest that clinicians should be aware of the severe neurocognitive dysfunction in treatment-resistant bipolar depression, particularly in BD I. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT00664976.

Cognitive function in first episode major depressive disorder: poor inhibition and semantic fluency performance.

INTRODUCTION: Executive Functions (EF) has been documented to be impaired in patients with recurrent Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in several studies. Longitudinal studies have suggested that these impairments may be a result of several episodes of depression or they may represent stable traits in this patient group. However, few studies have addressed these issues and investigated cognitive functioning with a particular focus on EF in patients who experience MDD for the first time. METHODS: In the present study, the executive functions of inhibition, verbal fluency, mental flexibility, and planning and problem solving were investigated in a group of patients diagnosed with first episode MDD. Thirty patients and 30 control subjects were included in the study. RESULTS: The patient group performed significantly more poorly in the cognitive functions of inhibition and semantic fluency. In addition, the patient group showed a reduced speed of mental processing on some of the measures. However, the results showed that reduced processing speed alone could not account for the poor performance in inhibition and semantic fluency. There were no differences between the two groups in the other measures of EF, indicating that functioning of mental flexibility, phonemic fluency, planning, and problem solving was intact in the patient group. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that impaired inhibition and semantic fluency are present early in the course of MDD. The present findings indicate that poor inhibition and performance in semantic fluency may represent stable traits in MDD, independent of symptom severity and the number of depressive episodes.