Neonatal immune challenge influences the microbiota and behaviour in a sexually dimorphic manner.

There is comorbidity between anxiety disorders and gastrointestinal disorders, with both linked to adverse early life events. The microbiome gut-brain-axis, a bidirectional communication system, is plastic throughout the neonatal period and is a possible mediator of this relationship. Here, we used a well-established neonatal rodent immune activation model to investigate the long-term effect of neonatal lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exposure on adult behaviour and the relationship to microbiome composition. Wistar rats were injected with LPS (0.05 mg/kg) or saline (equivolume) on postnatal days 3 and 5. In adulthood, behavioural tests were performed to assess anxiety-like behaviour, and microbiota sequencing was performed on stool samples. There were distinctly different behavioural phenotypes for LPS-exposed males and females. LPS-exposed males displayed typical anxiety-like behaviours with significantly decreased social interaction (F(1,22) = 7.576, p = 0.009) and increased defecation relative to saline controls (F(1,23) = 8.623, p = 0.005). LPS-exposed females displayed a different behavioural phenotype with significantly increased social interaction (F(1,22) = 6.094, p = 0.018), and exploration (F(1,24) = 6.359, p = 0.015), compared to saline controls. With respect to microbiota profiling data, Bacteroidota was significantly increased for LPS-exposed females (F(1,14) = 4.931p = 0.035) and Proteobacteria was decreased for LPS-exposed rats of both sexes versus controls (F(1,30) = 4.923p = 0.035). Furthermore, alterations in predicted functional pathways for neurotransmitters in faeces were observed with a decrease in the relative abundance of D-glutamine and D-glutamate metabolism in LPS exposed females compared to control females (p < 0.05). This suggests that neonatal immune activation alters both later life behaviour and adult gut microbiota in sex-specific ways. These findings highlight the importance of sex in determining the impact of neonatal immune activation on social behaviour and the gut microbiota.

Altered cerebral glucose metabolism normalized in a patient with a pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder after streptococcal infection (PANDAS)-like condition following treatment with plasmapheresis: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder after streptococcal infection (PANDAS) is a specific autoimmune response to group-A streptococcal infections in children and adolescents with a sudden onset of obsessive-compulsive disorders or tic-like symptoms. Cerebral metabolic changes of patients have not yet been observed. CASE PRESENTATION: We present a case of an 18-year old male with a PANDAS-like condition after developing tic-like symptoms and involuntary movements three weeks after cardiac surgery. The patient had suffered from pharyngotonsillitis before the symptoms started. The anti-streptolysin O (ASO) titer was elevated (805 kU/l). Antibiotic therapy did not improve his condition. Intravenous immunoglobulins and high-dose cortisone therapy had minor beneficial effects on his involuntary movements. 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/ computer tomography (18F-FDG PET/CT) demonstrated pronounced hypermetabolism of the basal ganglia and cortical hypometabolism. The patient was treated with five cycles of plasmapheresis. A marked clinical improvement was observed after four months. Cerebral metabolic alterations had completely normalized. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of cerebral metabolic changes observed on FDG-PET/CT in a patient with a PANDAS-like condition with a normalization following immunomodulatory treatment. Cerebral FDG-PET/CT might be a promising tool in the diagnosis of PANDAS.

Parental experiences of their infant's hospitalization for cardiac surgery.

BACKGROUND: Parents are increasingly recognized as important partners in children's health care. Despite their involvement in care, parental experiences of their child's hospitalization have received little research attention. In this study we explored parents' perceptions of what they found difficult, what they would like to be different and what they found to be helpful during their infant's hospitalization and surgery for the treatment of congenital heart disease. METHODS: Structured interviews were conducted with 154 parents (91 mothers, 63 fathers) whose infant underwent cardiac surgery (at <3 months of age) 1 month post discharge from hospital. Thematic and frequency analyses were performed. RESULTS: Parents reported a range of difficulties from dealing with their baby's unfolding illness, surgery and recovery to the structural and systemic issues associated with the broader context of their experiences. In an effort to be near their baby, parents struggled to obtain the necessities for daily living at the hospital and negotiate transitions between their hospital and home lives throughout the admission. Domains parents identified for change included the availability of facilities and resources and the quantity and quality of information and emotional support. Parents reported relationships with hospital staff as the most common source of support during this challenging time. CONCLUSIONS: Opportunities to improve parents' experiences when their infant is in hospital exist at an organizational level as well as at the clinical level. The significance of parents' relationship with hospital staff indicates the potential for each professional to impact on families' experiences on a daily basis. The range of challenges indicates the scope and need for allied health services.

[Tryptophan immunoadsorption for multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica: therapy option for acute relapses during pregnancy and breastfeeding]. / Tryptophan-Immunadsorption bei Multipler Sklerose und Neuromyelitis optica : Therapieoption bei akuten Schüben in der Schwangerschaft und Stillphase.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 25 % of women with multiple sclerosis (MS) suffer clinically relevant relapses during pregnancy. Almost all disease-modifying drugs are contraindicated in pregnancy. High-dose glucocorticoids have some serious risks, especially within the first trimester. Tryptophan immunoadsorption (IA) provides a safe option to treat MS relapses during pregnancy. OBJECTIVES: In this case series we describe for the first time the use of tryptophan IA for MS and neuromyelitis optica (NMO) relapses during pregnancy and breastfeeding. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In this study a total of 9 patients were retrospectively analyzed of which 7 patients received IA treatment during pregnancy, 2 during breastfeeding and 4-6 tryptophan IA treatments were performed per patient with the single use tryptophan adsorber. Primary outcome was symptom improvement of the relapse. RESULTS: In this study four patients with MS and one with NMO relapse during pregnancy were treated with IA without preceding glucocorticoid pulse therapy. The MS patients showed improvement in the expanded disability status scale (EDSS) by at least one point, the NMO patient showed significant improvement in visual acuity and two pregnant patients with steroid-refractory relapses showed clinically relevant improvement after IA. Of the patients two suffered from steroid-refractory relapses during breastfeeding and relapse symptoms improved in both cases after treatment with IA. All treatments were well tolerated and no serious adverse events occurred. CONCLUSION: Tryptophan IA was found to be safe, well-tolerated and effective in the treatment of MS and NMO relapses during pregnancy and breastfeeding, sometimes without preceding glucocorticoid pulse therapy. A binding recommendation is limited without prospective clinical studies.

[Therapeutic apheresis for autoimmune encephalitis: a nationwide data collection]. / Therapeutische Apherese bei autoimmuner Enzephalitis: Eine bundesweite Datenerhebung.

BACKGROUND: The correlation between detection of autoantibodies and the pattern and severity of symptoms in patients with encephalitis was the crucial factor for the initiation of immune therapy. The elimination of autoantibodies using therapeutic apheresis by plasma exchange (PE) and immunoadsorption (IA) is a pathophysiologically guided therapeutic approach. The aim was to evaluate the current use of PE and for the first time also of IA for patients with autoimmune encephalitis. METHODS: A nationwide data collection was performed and the modified Rankin score (mRS) was used to evaluate the severity of neurological symptoms. RESULTS: Data of 31 treatment courses (30 patients and 1 relapse) were documented and 22 patients were positive for autoantibodies (NMDA-R, GABA, VGKC, Hu). In 23 cases PA was performed, tryptophan IA in 7 cases and in 1 patient both methods were applied. In 67 % of the treatment courses the mRS improved and the mean mRS of all patients was 3.2 before apheresis and 2.2 after apheresis (p < 0.05). All patients who were treated with IA improved clinically from a mean mRS of 3.9 before IA to 1.9 after IA (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: For immune-mediated forms of encephalitis rapid elimination of autoantibodies with PA and IA seems to be an effective therapeutic option as part of a multimodal immune therapy and is already established in many clinics in Germany.

Molecular responses to ocean acidification in an Antarctic bivalve and an ascidian.

Southern Ocean organisms are considered particularly vulnerable to Ocean acidification (OA), as they inhabit cold waters where calcite-aragonite saturation states are naturally low. It is also generally assumed that OA would affect calcifying animals more than non-calcifying animals. In this context, we aimed to study the impact of reduced pH on both types of species: the ascidian Cnemidocarpa verrucosa sp. A, and the bivalve Aequiyoldia eightsii, from an Antarctic fjord. We used gene expression profiling and enzyme activity to study the responses of these two Antarctic benthic species to OA. We report the results of an experiment lasting 66 days, comparing the molecular mechanisms underlying responses under two pCO2 treatments (ambient and elevated pCO2). We observed 224 up-regulated and 111 down-regulated genes (FC ≥ 2; p-value ≤ 0.05) in the ascidian. In particular, the decrease in pH caused an upregulation of genes involved in the immune system and antioxidant response. While fewer differentially expressed (DE) genes were observed in the infaunal bivalve, 34 genes were up-regulated, and 69 genes were downregulated (FC ≥ 2; p-value ≤ 0.05) in response to OA. We found downregulated genes involved in the oxidoreductase pathway (such as glucose dehydrogenase and trimethyl lysine dioxygenase), while the heat shock protein 70 was up-regulated. This work addresses the effect of OA in two common, widely distributed Antarctic species, showing striking results. Our major finding highlights the impact of OA on the non-calcifying species, a result that differ from the general trend, which describes a higher impact on calcifying species. This calls for discussion of potential effects on non-calcifying species, such as ascidians, a diverse and abundant group that form extended three-dimensional clusters in shallow waters and shelf areas in the Southern Ocean.

Immune monitoring of Trichuris suis egg therapy in multiple sclerosis patients.

Initial clinical trials using Trichuris suis eggs (TSO) in autoimmune diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, revealed a striking suppressive effect on the autoimmune response. Here, we analysed the effect of TSO therapy on the course of multiple sclerosis (MS), as a Th1/Th17-associated autoimmune disease. Different immunological parameters in four patients with secondary progressive MS were surveyed during a 6-month therapy with TSO, focusing on the modulation of T-cell Th1-Th2 balance as well as on the innate immune response. We are able to show a slight downregulation of the Th1-associated cytokine pattern, especially relevant in interleukin (IL)-2 (P < 0.05 after 2 months of therapy), with a temporary increase of Th2-associated cytokines such as IL-4. Furthermore, mild eosinophily and changes in CD4+ and CD8+T cells and natural killer (NK) CD56 bright cell numbers were observed. The findings observed in this group of patients suggest that TSO therapy has a moderate immunomodulatory impact in MS.

[Neurological manifestations in connective tissue disease]. / Neurologische Manifestationen bei Kollagenosen.

In connective tissue diseases, especially systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjögren's syndrome, diverse neurological symptoms and syndromes involving both the central and peripheral nervous system can occur at any stage of the disease. The pathogenesis is diverse. Prevalence figures in the literature vary considerably and the causal relationships are often uncertain. Very often connective tissue diseases must be considered in the differential diagnosis of conditions manifesting with unclear neurological symptoms. Both rheumatologists and neurologists should be familiar with the main neurological signs, symptoms and complications of connective tissue diseases and should recognize the importance of diagnostic testing.

Olfactory bulb volume and olfactory function in patients with multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Some studies reported olfactory dysfunction in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). There is no agreement about the most suitable testing method for measuring olfactory function (OF) in MS patients. Recent studies showed that olfactory bulb volume changes with the degree of olfactory dysfunction. We assessed olfactory bulb volume of MS patients with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and related it to the OF. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Volumetric measurements of the right and left olfactory bulb (OB) were performed by manual segmentation within 36 MS patients. Psychophysical testing of the orthonasal OF was performed using threshold-discrimination-identification (TDI) score in MS patients. RESULTS: Of all MS patients, 44.4% displayed olfactory dysfunction. The TDI score of all 36 MS patients, especially the score of the Identification subtest correlated strongly with neurological scores typical of MS. In patients with a decreased OB volume, there was a positive correlation between volumetry of the OB and OF. CONCLUSION: OB volumes may provide valuable information about MS patients with olfactory dysfunction. The TDI test and Identification subtest were very sensitive in detecting olfactory dysfunction in MS patients.

Guidelines for treatment of autoimmune neuromuscular transmission disorders.

BACKGROUND: Important progress has been made in our understanding of the autoimmune neuromuscular transmission (NMT) disorders; myasthenia gravis (MG), Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) and neuromyotonia (Isaacs' syndrome). METHODS: To prepare consensus guidelines for the treatment of the autoimmune NMT disorders, references retrieved from MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane Library were considered and statements prepared and agreed on by disease experts. CONCLUSIONS: Anticholinesterase drugs should be given first in the management of MG, but with some caution in patients with MuSK antibodies (good practice point). Plasma exchange is recommended in severe cases to induce remission and in preparation for surgery (recommendation level B). IvIg and plasma exchange are effective for the treatment of MG exacerbations (recommendation level A). For patients with non-thymomatous MG, thymectomy is recommended as an option to increase the probability of remission or improvement (recommendation level B). Once thymoma is diagnosed, thymectomy is indicated irrespective of MG severity (recommendation level A). Oral corticosteroids are first choice drugs when immunosuppressive drugs are necessary (good practice point). When long-term immunosuppression is necessary, azathioprine is recommended to allow tapering the steroids to the lowest possible dose whilst maintaining azathioprine (recommendation level A). 3,4-Diaminopyridine is recommended as symptomatic treatment and IvIG has a positive short-term effect in LEMS (good practice point). Neuromyotonia patients should be treated with an antiepileptic drug that reduces peripheral nerve hyperexcitability (good practice point). For paraneoplastic LEMS and neuromyotonia optimal treatment of the underlying tumour is essential (good practice point). Immunosuppressive treatment of LEMS and neuromyotonia should be similar to MG (good practice point).

Reversible neurological deficit after foam sclerotherapy.

A 37-year-old male was treated with 9 ml of 3% polidocanol foam, and he immediately reported photopsiae lasting a few minutes, though without migraine. Two hours after sclerotherapy, the patient developed speech disturbance for a few minutes. A pathological examination revealed nothing except a patent foramen ovale (PFO). Given the contrast between the high prevalence of PFO in general population and the extremely low incidence of neurological deficits after foam sclerotherapy, these deficits may only arise due to as-yet-unknown aetiology.

Maternal immune activation in mid-late gestation alters amphetamine sensitivity and object recognition, but not other schizophrenia-related behaviours in adult rats.

Maternal immune activation induced by Poly(I:C) administration is one of the most commonly used animal models of schizophrenia at present. Previous work from our team has demonstrated that some, but not all of the features often reported for maternal immune activation exposure in rodents can be observed in rats exposed to maternal immune activation at mid or late gestation. To determine whether previous findings in our laboratory were due to these time points simply being less sensitive neurodevelopmental periods for rats with regard to maternal immune activation effects, we aimed to investigate whether maternal immune activation at an often-reported sensitive period (mid-late gestation, day 14) resulted in more behavioural features reflective of face validity for schizophrenia. We examined the behavioural outcomes of mid-late maternal immune activation on a battery of behavioural tests aimed at assessing validity for positive, negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. We found that rats exposed to maternal immune activation, compared to controls, exhibited enhanced sensitivity to the locomotor-stimulating effects of amphetamine and reduced exploration of novel objects. These findings present a unique profile of effects, different to what has already been established for the same time point in rats, and different to what we had found at earlier and later time points. This work, among others in the literature, highlights the varying nature of models of maternal immune activation and we submit that it is essential for laboratories to characterise their models of maternal immune activation on behaviour rather than assuming that the effects from one laboratory apply in their own.

Late deviance detection in rats is reduced, while early deviance detection is augmented by the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801.

One of the most robust electrophysiological features of schizophrenia is reduced mismatch negativity, a component of the event related potential (ERP) induced by rare and unexpected stimuli in an otherwise regular pattern. Emerging evidence suggests that mismatch negativity (MMN) is not the only ERP index of deviance detection in the mammalian brain and that sensitivity to deviant sounds in a regular background can be observed at earlier latencies in both the human and rodent brain. Pharmacological studies in humans and rodents have previously found that MMN reductions similar to those seen in schizophrenia can be elicited by N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonism, an observation in agreement with the hypothesised role of NMDA receptor hypofunction in schizophrenia pathogenesis. However, it is not known how NMDA receptor antagonism affects early deviance detection responses. Here, we show that NMDA antagonism impacts both early and late deviance detection responses. By recording EEG in awake, freely-moving rats in a drug-free condition and after varying doses of NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801, we found the hypothesised reduction of deviance detection for a late, negative potential (N55). However, the amplitude of an early component, P13, as well as deviance detection evident in the same component, were increased by NMDA receptor antagonism. These findings indicate that late deviance detection in rats is similar to human MMN, but the surprising effect of MK-801 in increasing ERP amplitudes as well as deviance detection at earlier latencies suggests that future studies in humans should examine ERPs over early latencies in schizophrenia and after NMDA antagonism.

Ethical Use and Impact of Participatory Approaches to Research in Post-Disaster Environments: An Australian Bushfire Case Study.

This paper presents a case study of Beyond Bushfires, a large, multisite, mixed method study of the psychosocial impacts of major bushfires in Victoria, Australia. A participatory approach was employed throughout the study which was led by a team of academic investigators in partnership with service providers and government representatives and used on-site visits and multiple methods of communication with communities across the state to inform decision-making throughout the study. The ethics and impacts of conducting and adapting the approach within a post-disaster context will be discussed in reference to theories and models of participatory health research. The challenges of balancing local interests with state-wide implications will also be explored in the description of the methods of engagement and the study processes and outcomes. Beyond Bushfires demonstrates the feasibility of incorporating participatory methods in large, post-disaster research studies and achieving rigorous findings and multilevel impacts, while recognising the potential for some of the empowering aspects of the participatory experience to be reduced by the scaled-up approach.

Quantitative EEG findings in patients with chronic renal failure.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic renal failure frequently causes uremic encephalopathy with impairment of various cognitive functions, but the pathophysiology of uremic syndrome is complex and poorly understood. In this study, we wished to establish a reliable tool and monitor system to evaluate the central nervous system dysfunction of patients with uremic encephalopathy. METHODS: A group of 31 patients with chronic renal failure was assessed with online real time brain mapping using the CATEEM technology to detect deviations and abnormal EEG patterns. Quantitative EEG data were compared with those of an age-matched healthy control group and correlated to laboratory markers and various dosages of erythropoietin. RESULTS: Electrical power was most prominent in delta, theta and alpha frequencies in the temporal and central brain areas (electrode positions T5, T6, C3 and C4). Explorative statistical comparison of the two data sets with respect to these brain areas revealed that the increases in electrical power in delta, theta and alpha frequency bands were different from healthy people with p-values of p<0.003 (delta), p<0.0003 (theta), p<0.01 (alpha 1) and p<0.01 (alpha 2). In addition, high levels of hemoglobin were significantly correlated with higher theta activity. CONCLUSION: We detected distinct EEG deviations from normality in patients with chronic renal failure. Online real time brain mapping using the CATEEM technology provides a unique possibility to monitor mental impairment and serves as a control for therapeutical intervention.

Pelagic and benthic communities of the Antarctic ecosystem of Potter Cove: Genomics and ecological implications.

Molecular technologies are more frequently applied in Antarctic ecosystem research and the growing amount of sequence-based information available in databases adds a new dimension to understanding the response of Antarctic organisms and communities to environmental change. We apply molecular techniques, including fingerprinting, and amplicon and metagenome sequencing, to understand biodiversity and phylogeography to resolve adaptive processes in an Antarctic coastal ecosystem from microbial to macrobenthic organisms and communities. Interpretation of the molecular data is not only achieved by their combination with classical methods (pigment analyses or microscopy), but furthermore by combining molecular with environmental data (e.g., sediment characteristics, biogeochemistry or oceanography) in space and over time. The studies form part of a long-term ecosystem investigation in Potter Cove on King-George Island, Antarctica, in which we follow the effects of rapid retreat of the local glacier on the cove ecosystem. We formulate and encourage new approaches to integrate molecular tools into Antarctic ecosystem research, environmental conservation actions, and polar ocean observatories.

Guidelines for the treatment of autoimmune neuromuscular transmission disorders.

Important progress has been made in our understanding of the cellular and molecular processes underlying the autoimmune neuromuscular transmission (NMT) disorders; myasthenia gravis (MG), Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) and neuromyotonia (peripheral nerve hyperexcitability; Isaacs syndrome). To prepare consensus guidelines for the treatment of the autoimmune NMT disorders. References retrieved from MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane Library were considered and statements prepared and agreed on by disease experts and a patient representative. The proposed practical treatment guidelines are agreed upon by the Task Force: (i) Anticholinesterase drugs should be the first drug to be given in the management of MG (good practice point). (ii) Plasma exchange is recommended as a short-term treatment in MG, especially in severe cases to induce remission and in preparation for surgery (level B recommendation). (iii) Intravenous immunoglobulin (IvIg) and plasma exchange are equally effective for the treatment of MG exacerbations (level A Recommendation). (iv) For patients with non-thymomatous autoimmune MG, thymectomy (TE) is recommended as an option to increase the probability of remission or improvement (level B recommendation). (v) Once thymoma is diagnosed TE is indicated irrespective of the severity of MG (level A recommendation). (vi) Oral corticosteroids is a first choice drug when immunosuppressive drugs are necessary in MG (good practice point). (vii) In patients where long-term immunosuppression is necessary, azathioprine is recommended together with steroids to allow tapering the steroids to the lowest possible dose whilst maintaining azathioprine (level A recommendation). (viii) 3,4-diaminopyridine is recommended as symptomatic treatment and IvIg has a positive short-term effect in LEMS (good practice point). (ix) All neuromyotonia patients should be treated symptomatically with an anti-epileptic drug that reduces peripheral nerve hyperexcitability (good practice point). (x) Definitive management of paraneoplastic neuromyotonia and LEMS is treatment of the underlying tumour (good practice point). (xi) For immunosuppressive treatment of LEMS and NMT it is reasonable to adopt treatment procedures by analogy with MG (good practice point).

Trends in the surgical treatment of prostate cancer in Wisconsin, 1989-1991.

BACKGROUND: Radical prostatectomy (removal of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles) is usually considered a definitive treatment for localized prostate cancer. Although a sharp increase and wide geographic variation in radical prostatectomy rates have been recently documented, the reasons for this increase and the factors that make men diagnosed with the disease more likely to be treated surgically are not well known. PURPOSE: Our purpose was to examine trends in the use of surgical treatment for prostate cancer, as well as the factors associated with the choice of surgical treatment and how these factors changed in Wisconsin in the period 1989 through 1991. METHODS: We carried out a population-based cohort study. A cohort of Wisconsin men diagnosed from 1989 through 1991 with prostate cancer was identified through the Wisconsin cancer reporting system. To determine which men diagnosed with prostate cancer were treated with surgery, we linked prostate cancer records to the Wisconsin hospital discharge database. The outcome measured was radical prostatectomy within 6 months from the date of the diagnosis of prostate cancer. RESULTS: The yearly number of prostate cancer cases reported from 1989 through 1991 rose 33%, from 2468 to 3278. During the same period, the yearly number of radical prostatectomies rose 226%, from 283 to 922. Patients diagnosed in 1991 were twice as likely to have surgery as those diagnosed in 1989, the proportion of cases receiving surgical treatment rising from 12% to 25%. Patients who were white, less than 65 years of age, had a cancer reported to be at regional stage, and who were first reported by large hospitals were more likely to be treated surgically. CONCLUSIONS: The use of surgery to treat prostate cancer has increased dramatically in Wisconsin, doubling in a 3-year period, despite the fact that studies have not shown surgery to be more effective than other options for many patients. The increase observed in the rate of surgery was about the same across age, race, stage at diagnosis, and hospital size. The reasons for this increase are probably multifactorial. IMPLICATIONS: Risks, costs, and benefits of surgical treatment should be carefully compared with those of alternative management approaches. Patients should be enabled to make an informed decision, based on the current best evidence, on the treatment option they prefer.

Pyrosequencing and de novo assembly of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) transcriptome to study the adaptability of krill to climate-induced environmental changes.

The Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, has a key position in the Southern Ocean food web by serving as direct link between primary producers and apex predators. The south-west Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean, where the majority of the krill population is located, is experiencing one of the most profound environmental changes worldwide. Up to now, we have only cursory information about krill's genomic plasticity to cope with the ongoing environmental changes induced by anthropogenic CO2 emission. The genome of krill is not yet available due to its large size (about 48 Gbp). Here, we present two cDNA normalized libraries from whole krill and krill heads sampled in different seasons that were combined with two data sets of krill transcriptome projects, already published, to produce the first knowledgebase krill 'master' transcriptome. The new library produced 25% more E. superba transcripts and now includes nearly all the enzymes involved in the primary oxidative metabolism (Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation) as well as all genes involved in glycogenesis, glycogen breakdown, gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis and fatty acids ß-oxidation. With these features, the 'master' transcriptome provides the most complete picture of metabolic pathways in Antarctic krill and will provide a major resource for future physiological and molecular studies. This will be particularly valuable for characterizing the molecular networks that respond to stressors caused by the anthropogenic CO2 emissions and krill's capacity to cope with the ongoing environmental changes in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean.