Neuroimmune Interactions in the Lung.

Barrier tissues are highly innervated by sensory and autonomic nerves that are positioned in close proximity to both stromal and immune cell populations. Together with a growing awareness of the far-reaching consequences of neuroimmune interactions, recent studies have uncovered key mechanisms through which they contribute to organ homeostasis and immunity. It has also become clear that dysregulation of such interactions is implicated in the development of chronic lung diseases. This review describes the characteristics of the lung nervous system and discusses the molecular mechanisms that underlie lung neuroimmune interactions in infection and disease. We have contextualized the current literature and identified opportune areas for further investigation. Indeed, both the lung-brain axis and local neuroimmune interactions hold enormous potential for the exploration and development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting lung diseases. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Immunology, Volume 42 is April 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Adding data to gut feelings.

Pain-sensing neurons detect environmental insults and tissue injury, driving avoidance behavior and the local release of neuropeptides. Two related papers in this issue of Cell report that gut-innervating pain neurons sense bacterial presence to both shape the constituents of the gut microbiome and protect against excessive inflammation.

Microbial metabolism of L-tyrosine protects against allergic airway inflammation.

The constituents of the gut microbiome are determined by the local habitat, which itself is shaped by immunological pressures, such as mucosal IgA. Using a mouse model of restricted antibody repertoire, we identified a role for antibody-microbe interactions in shaping a community of bacteria with an enhanced capacity to metabolize L-tyrosine. This model led to increased concentrations of p-cresol sulfate (PCS), which protected the host against allergic airway inflammation. PCS selectively reduced CCL20 production by airway epithelial cells due to an uncoupling of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling. Together, these data reveal a gut microbe-derived metabolite pathway that acts distally on the airway epithelium to reduce allergic airway responses, such as those underpinning asthma.

A new superhero, the intraepithelial mast cell, joins the "Guardians of the Gut".

The intestinal epithelium interacts with immune cells to support tissue homeostasis and coordinate responses against pathogens. In this issue of Immunity, Yang et al. unveil a central role for mast cell-epithelial cell interactions in orchestrating protective type 2 immune responses following intestinal helminth infection.

Antibiotic-driven dysbiosis in early life disrupts indole-3-propionic acid production and exacerbates allergic airway inflammation in adulthood.

Antibiotic use in early life disrupts microbial colonization and increases the risk of developing allergies and asthma. We report that mice given antibiotics in early life (EL-Abx), but not in adulthood, were more susceptible to house dust mite (HDM)-induced allergic airway inflammation. This susceptibility was maintained even after normalization of the gut microbiome. EL-Abx decreased systemic levels of indole-3-propionic acid (IPA), which induced long-term changes to cellular stress, metabolism, and mitochondrial respiration in the lung epithelium. IPA reduced mitochondrial respiration and superoxide production and altered chemokine and cytokine production. Consequently, early-life IPA supplementation protected EL-Abx mice against exacerbated HDM-induced allergic airway inflammation in adulthood. These results reveal a mechanism through which EL-Abx can predispose the lung to allergic airway inflammation and highlight a possible preventative approach to mitigate the detrimental consequences of EL-Abx.

Small intestinal resident eosinophils maintain gut homeostasis following microbial colonization.

The intestine harbors a large population of resident eosinophils, yet the function of intestinal eosinophils has not been explored. Flow cytometry and whole-mount imaging identified eosinophils residing in the lamina propria along the length of the intestine prior to postnatal microbial colonization. Microscopy, transcriptomic analysis, and mass spectrometry of intestinal tissue revealed villus blunting, altered extracellular matrix, decreased epithelial cell turnover, increased gastrointestinal motility, and decreased lipid absorption in eosinophil-deficient mice. Mechanistically, intestinal epithelial cells released IL-33 in a microbiota-dependent manner, which led to eosinophil activation. The colonization of germ-free mice demonstrated that eosinophil activation in response to microbes regulated villous size alterations, macrophage maturation, epithelial barrier integrity, and intestinal transit. Collectively, our findings demonstrate a critical role for eosinophils in facilitating the mutualistic interactions between the host and microbiota and provide a rationale for the functional significance of their early life recruitment in the small intestine.

A Dangerous Liaison with a Conscience.

The contribution of the immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mast cell response to allergy portrays the axis as a villain with malicious intent. A new study from Starkl et al. tells a different story, highlighting a more worthwhile purpose of protecting us against bacterial toxins.

Helminth infection driven gastrointestinal hypermotility is independent of eosinophils and mediated by alterations in smooth muscle instead of enteric neurons.

Intestinal helminth infection triggers a type 2 immune response that promotes a 'weep-and sweep' response characterised by increased mucus secretion and intestinal hypermotility, which function to dislodge the worm from its intestinal habitat. Recent studies have discovered that several other pathogens cause intestinal dysmotility through major alterations to the immune and enteric nervous systems (ENS), and their interactions, within the gastrointestinal tract. However, the involvement of these systems has not been investigated for helminth infections. Eosinophils represent a key cell type recruited by the type 2 immune response and alter intestinal motility under steady-state conditions. Our study aimed to investigate whether altered intestinal motility driven by the murine hookworm, Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, infection involves eosinophils and how the ENS and smooth muscles of the gut are impacted. Eosinophil deficiency did not influence helminth-induced intestinal hypermotility and hypermotility did not involve gross structural or functional changes to the ENS. Hypermotility was instead associated with a dramatic increase in smooth muscle thickness and contractility, an observation that extended to another rodent nematode, Heligmosomoides polygyrus. In summary our data indicate that, in contrast to other pathogens, helminth-induced intestinal hypermotility is driven by largely by myogenic, rather than neurogenic, alterations with such changes occurring independently of eosinophils. (<300 words).

Only Two Can Tango: Mast Cells Displace Epithelial Cells to Dance with ILC2s.

Mast cells have been implicated in protective immunity to helminth infection, but the precise mechanism remains unclear. In this issue of Immunity, Shimokawa et al., 2017 report that mast cells are a bridge linking dying epithelial cells with effector type 2 innate lymphoid cells.

Recent Advances in Type-2-Cell-Mediated Immunity: Insights from Helminth Infection.

Type-2-cell-mediated immune responses play a critical role in mediating both host-resistance and disease-tolerance mechanisms during helminth infections. Recently, type 2 cell responses have emerged as major regulators of tissue repair and metabolic homeostasis even under steady-state conditions. In this review, we consider how studies of helminth infection have contributed toward our expanding cellular and molecular understanding of type-2-cell-mediated immunity, as well as new areas such as the microbiome. By studying how these successful parasites form chronic infections without overt pathology, we are gaining additional insights into allergic and inflammatory diseases, as well as normal physiology.

Helminth Infection-Induced Increase in Virtual Memory CD8 T Cells Is Transient, Driven by IL-15, and Absent in Aged Mice.

CD8 virtual memory T (TVM) cells are Ag-naive CD8 T cells that have undergone partial differentiation in response to common γ-chain cytokines, particularly IL-15 and IL-4. TVM cells from young individuals are highly proliferative in response to TCR and cytokine stimulation but, with age, they lose TCR-mediated proliferative capacity and exhibit hallmarks of senescence. Helminth infection can drive an increase in TVM cells, which is associated with improved pathogen clearance during subsequent infectious challenge in young mice. Given the cytokine-dependent profile of TVM cells and their age-associated dysfunction, we traced proliferative and functional changes in TVM cells, compared with true naive CD8 T cells, after helminth infection of young and aged C57BL/6 mice. We show that IL-15 is essential for the helminth-induced increase in TVM cells, which is driven only by proliferation of existing TVM cells, with negligible contribution from true naive cell differentiation. Additionally, TVM cells showed the greatest proliferation in response to helminth infection and IL-15 compared with other CD8 T cells. Furthermore, TVM cells from aged mice did not undergo expansion after helminth infection due to both TVM cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic changes associated with aging.

The Intestinal Microbiota Contributes to the Ability of Helminths to Modulate Allergic Inflammation.

Intestinal helminths are potent regulators of their host's immune system and can ameliorate inflammatory diseases such as allergic asthma. In the present study we have assessed whether this anti-inflammatory activity was purely intrinsic to helminths, or whether it also involved crosstalk with the local microbiota. We report that chronic infection with the murine helminth Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri (Hpb) altered the intestinal habitat, allowing increased short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production. Transfer of the Hpb-modified microbiota alone was sufficient to mediate protection against allergic asthma. The helminth-induced anti-inflammatory cytokine secretion and regulatory T cell suppressor activity that mediated the protection required the G protein-coupled receptor (GPR)-41. A similar alteration in the metabolic potential of intestinal bacterial communities was observed with diverse parasitic and host species, suggesting that this represents an evolutionary conserved mechanism of host-microbe-helminth interactions.

The skin microbiome in the first year of life and its association with atopic dermatitis.

BACKGROUND: Early-life microbial colonization of the skin may modulate the immune system and impact the development of atopic dermatitis (AD) and allergic diseases later in life. To address this question, we assessed the association between the skin microbiome and AD, skin barrier integrity and allergic diseases in the first year of life. We further explored the evolution of the skin microbiome with age and its possible determinants, including delivery mode. METHODS: Skin microbiome was sampled from the lateral upper arm on the first day of life, and at 3, 6, and 12 months of age. Bacterial communities were assessed by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing in 346 infants from the PreventADALL population-based birth cohort study, representing 970 samples. Clinical investigations included skin examination and skin barrier function measured as trans-epidermal water loss (TEWL) at the site and time of microbiome sampling at 3, 6, and 12 months. Parental background information was recorded in electronic questionnaires, and delivery mode (including vaginal delivery (VD), VD in water, elective caesarean section (CS) and emergency CS) was obtained from maternal hospital charts. RESULTS: Strong temporal variations in skin bacterial community composition were found in the first year of life, with distinct patterns associated with different ages. Confirming our hypothesis, skin bacterial community composition in the first year of life was associated with skin barrier integrity and later onsets of AD. Delivery mode had a strong impact on the microbiome composition at birth, with each mode leading to distinct patterns of colonization. Other possible determinants of the skin microbiome were identified, including environmental and parental factors as well as breastfeeding. CONCLUSION: Skin microbiome composition during infancy is defined by age, transiently influenced by delivery mode as well as environmental, parental factors and breastfeeding. The microbiome is also associated with skin barrier integrity and the onset of AD.

Neuronal regulation of type 2 innate lymphoid cells via neuromedin U.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) regulate inflammation, tissue repair and metabolic homeostasis, and are activated by host-derived cytokines and alarmins. Discrete subsets of immune cells integrate nervous system cues, but it remains unclear whether neuron-derived signals control ILC2s. Here we show that neuromedin U (NMU) in mice is a fast and potent regulator of type 2 innate immunity in the context of a functional neuron-ILC2 unit. We found that ILC2s selectively express neuromedin U receptor 1 (Nmur1), and mucosal neurons express NMU. Cell-autonomous activation of ILC2s with NMU resulted in immediate and strong NMUR1-dependent production of innate inflammatory and tissue repair cytokines. NMU controls ILC2s downstream of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and calcium-influx-dependent activation of both calcineurin and nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT). NMU treatment in vivo resulted in immediate protective type 2 responses. Accordingly, ILC2-autonomous ablation of Nmur1 led to impaired type 2 responses and poor control of worm infection. Notably, mucosal neurons were found adjacent to ILC2s, and these neurons directly sensed worm products and alarmins to induce NMU and to control innate type 2 cytokines. Our work reveals that neuron-ILC2 cell units confer immediate tissue protection through coordinated neuroimmune sensory responses.

Human Precision-Cut Liver Slices: A Potential Platform to Study Alcohol-Related Liver Disease.

Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) encompasses a range of pathological conditions that are complex to study at the clinical and preclinical levels. Despite the global burden of ALD, there is a lack of effective treatments, and mortality is high. One of the reasons for the unsuccessful development of novel therapies is that experimental studies are hindered by the challenge of recapitulating this multifactorial disorder in vitro, including the contributions of hepatotoxicity, impaired lipid metabolism, fibrosis and inflammatory cytokine storm, which are critical drivers in the pathogenesis of ALD in patients and primary targets for drug development. Here, we present the unique characteristics of the culture of human precision-cut liver slices (PCLS) to replicate key disease processes in ALD. PCLS were prepared from human liver specimens and treated with ethanol alone or in combination with fatty acids and lipopolysaccharide (FA + LPS) for up to 5 days to induce hepatotoxic, inflammatory and fibrotic events associated with ALD. Alcohol insult induced hepatocyte death which was more pronounced with the addition of FA + LPS. This mixture showed a significant increase in the cytokines conventionally associated with the prototypical inflammatory response observed in severe ALD, and interestingly, alcohol alone exhibited a different effect. Profibrogenic activation was also observed in the slices and investigated in the context of slice preparation. These results support the versatility of this organotypic model to study different pathways involved in alcohol-induced liver damage and ALD progression and highlight the applicability of the PCLS for drug discovery, confirming their relevance as a bridge between preclinical and clinical studies.

ß-Glucan receptors on IL-4 activated macrophages are required for hookworm larvae recognition and trapping.

Recent advances in the field of host immunity against parasitic nematodes have revealed the importance of macrophages in trapping tissue migratory larvae. Protective immune mechanisms against the rodent hookworm Nippostrongylus brasiliensis (Nb) are mediated, at least in part, by IL-4-activated macrophages that bind and trap larvae in the lung. However, it is still not clear how host macrophages recognize the parasite. An in vitro co-culture system of bone marrow-derived macrophages and Nb infective larvae was utilized to screen for the possible ligand-receptor pair involved in macrophage attack of larvae. Competitive binding assays revealed an important role for ß-glucan recognition in the process. We further identified a role for CD11b and the non-classical pattern recognition receptor ephrin-A2 (EphA2), but not the highly expressed ß-glucan dectin-1 receptor, in this process of recognition. This work raises the possibility that parasitic nematodes synthesize ß-glucans and it identifies CD11b and ephrin-A2 as important pattern recognition receptors involved in the host recognition of these evolutionary old pathogens. To our knowledge, this is the first time that EphA2 has been implicated in immune responses to a helminth.

How lipids affect the energetics of co-translational alpha helical membrane protein folding.

Membrane proteins need to fold with precision in order to function correctly, with misfolding potentially leading to disease. The proteins reside within a hydrophobic lipid membrane and must insert into the membrane and fold correctly, generally whilst they are being translated by the ribosome. Favourable and unfavourable free energy contributions are present throughout each stage of insertion and folding. The unfavourable energy cost of transferring peptide bonds into the hydrophobic membrane interior is compensated for by the favourable hydrophobic effect of partitioning a hydrophobic transmembrane alpha-helix into the membrane. Native membranes are composed of many different types of lipids, but how these different lipids influence folding and the associated free energies is not well understood. Altering the lipids in the bilayer is known to affect the probability of transmembrane helix insertion into the membrane, and lipids also affect protein stability and can promote successful folding. This review will summarise the free energy contributions associated with insertion and folding of alpha helical membrane proteins, as well as how lipids can make these processes more or less favourable. We will also discuss the implications of this work for the free energy landscape during the co-translational folding of alpha helical membrane proteins.

Microbiome-induced antigen-presenting cell recruitment coordinates skin and lung allergic inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Allergic skin inflammation often presents in early childhood; however, little is known about the events leading to its initiation and whether it is transient or long-term in nature. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine the immunologic rules that govern skin inflammation in early life. METHODS: Neonatal and adult mice were epicutaneously sensitized with allergen followed by airway allergen challenge. Epicutaneous application of labeled allergen allowed for determination of antigen uptake and processing by antigen-presenting cells. RNAseq and microbiome analysis was performed on skin from neonatal and adult specific pathogen-free and germ-free mice. RESULTS: A mixed TH2/TH17 inflammatory response in the skin and the lungs of adult mice was observed following sensitization and challenge. Comparatively, neonatal mice did not develop overt skin inflammation, but exhibited systemic release of IL-17a and a TH2-dominated lung response. Mechanical skin barrier disruption was not sufficient to drive allergic skin inflammation, although it did promote systemic immune priming. Skin of neonatal mice and adult germ-free mice was seeded with low numbers of antigen-presenting cells and impaired chemokine and alarmin production. Enhanced chemokine and alarmin production, and seeding of the skin with antigen-presenting cells capable of instructing recruited cells to elicit their effector function, was, at least in part, dependent on formation of the microbiome, and consequently contributed to the development of overt skin disease. CONCLUSIONS: These data shed light on the principles that underlie allergic inflammation in different tissues and highlight a window of opportunity that might exist for early-life prevention of allergic diseases.

Helminth-Bacterial Interactions: Cause and Consequence.

Intestinal helminths, along with mutualistic microbes, have cohabited the intestine of mammals throughout evolution. Interactions between helminths, bacteria, and their mammalian hosts may shape not only host-helminth and host-microbiome interactions, but also the relationship between helminths and the microbiome. This 'ménage à trois' situation may not be completely balanced in that it may favor either the host or the parasite, possibly at the cost of the other partner. Similarly, helminths may favor the establishment of a particular microbiome with either positive or negative consequences for the overall health and well-being of the host. Recent studies indicate that infection with intestinal helminths can and does impact the intestinal microbiome, with important consequences for each partner in this tripartite relationship.