Typhoid Fever Surveillance, Incidence Estimates, and Progress Toward Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine Introduction - Worldwide, 2018-2022.

Typhoid fever, an acute febrile illness caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi), is endemic in many low- and middle-income countries† (1). In 2015, an estimated 11-21 million typhoid fever cases and 148,000-161,000 associated deaths occurred worldwide (2). Effective prevention strategies include improved access to and use of infrastructure supporting safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH); health education; and vaccination (1). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends programmatic use of typhoid conjugate vaccines for typhoid fever control and prioritization of vaccine introduction in countries with the highest typhoid fever incidence or high prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant S. Typhi (1). This report describes typhoid fever surveillance, incidence estimates, and the status of typhoid conjugate vaccine introduction during 2018-2022. Because routine surveillance for typhoid fever has low sensitivity, population-based studies have guided estimates of case counts and incidence in 10 countries since 2016 (3-6). In 2019, an updated modeling study estimated that 9.2 million (95% CI = 5.9-14.1) typhoid fever cases and 110,000 (95% CI = 53,000-191,000) deaths occurred worldwide, with the highest estimated incidence in the WHO South-East Asian (306 cases per 100,000 persons), Eastern Mediterranean (187), and African (111) regions (7). Since 2018, five countries (Liberia, Nepal, Pakistan, Samoa [based on self-assessment], and Zimbabwe) with estimated high typhoid fever incidence (≥100 cases per 100,000 population per year) (8), high antimicrobial resistance prevalence, or recent outbreaks introduced typhoid conjugate vaccines into their routine immunization programs (2). To guide vaccine introduction decisions, countries should consider all available information, including surveillance of laboratory-confirmed cases, population-based and modeling studies, and outbreak reports. Establishing and strengthening typhoid fever surveillance will be important to measure vaccine impact.

Cholera Outbreak - Haiti, September 2022-January 2023.

On September 30, 2022, after >3 years with no confirmed cholera cases (1), the Directorate of Epidemiology, Laboratories and Research (DELR) of the Haitian Ministry of Public Health and Population (Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la Population [MSPP]) was notified of two patients with acute, watery diarrhea in the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince. Within 2 days, Haiti's National Public Health Laboratory confirmed the bacterium Vibrio cholerae O1 in specimens from the two patients with suspected cholera infection, and an outbreak investigation began immediately. As of January 3, 2023, >20,000 suspected cholera cases had been reported throughout the country, and 79% of patients have been hospitalized. The moving 14-day case fatality ratio (CFR) was 3.0%. Cholera, which is transmitted through ingestion of water or food contaminated with fecal matter, can cause acute, severe, watery diarrhea that can rapidly lead to dehydration, shock, and death if not treated promptly (2). Haiti is currently facing ongoing worsening of gang violence, population displacement, social unrest, and insecurity, particularly in the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince, including Belair, Bas-Delmas, Centre-Ville, Martissant, Cité Soleil, Croix-des Bouquets, and Tabarre, creating an environment that has facilitated the current resurgence of cholera (3). This report describes the initial investigation, ongoing outbreak, and public health response to cholera in Haiti. Cholera outbreak responses require a multipronged, multisectoral approach including surveillance; case management; access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services; targeted oral cholera vaccine (OCV) campaigns; risk communication; and community engagement. This activity was reviewed by CDC and was conducted consistent with applicable federal law and CDC policy.

Prevalence of Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision for HIV Infection Prevention - Chókwè District, Mozambique, 2014-2019.

Male circumcision is an important preventive strategy that confers lifelong partial protection (approximately 60% reduced risk) against heterosexually acquired HIV infection among males (1). In Mozambique, the prevalence of male circumcision was 51% when the voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) program began in 2009. The Mozambique Ministry of Health set a goal of 80% circumcision prevalence among males aged 10-49 years by 2019 (2). CDC analyzed data from five cross-sectional surveys of the Chókwè Health and Demographic Surveillance System (CHDSS) to evaluate progress toward the goal and guide ongoing needs for VMMC in Mozambique. During 2014-2019, circumcision prevalence among males aged 15-59 years increased 42%, from 50.1% to 73.5% (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] = 1.42). By 2019, circumcision prevalence among males aged 15-24 years was 90.2%, exceeding the national goal (2). However, circumcision prevalence among males in older age groups remained below 80%; prevalence was 62.7%, 54.5%, and 55.7% among males aged 25-34, 35-44, and 45-59 years, respectively. A multifaceted strategy addressing concerns about the safety of the procedure, cultural norms, and competing priorities that lead to lack of time could help overcome barriers to circumcision among males aged ≥25 years.

A community-based cluster randomized survey of noncommunicable disease and risk factors in a peri-urban shantytown in Lima, Peru.

BACKGROUND: An estimated 863 million people-a third of the world's urban population-live in slums, yet there is little information on the disease burden in these settings, particularly regarding chronic preventable diseases. METHODS: From March to May 2012, we conducted a cluster randomized survey to estimate the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) and associated risk factors in a peri-urban shantytown north of Lima, Peru. Field workers administered a questionnaire that included items from the WHO World Health Survey and the WHO STEPS survey of chronic disease risk factors. We used logistic regression to assess the associations of NCDs and related risk factors with age and gender. We accounted for sampling weights and the clustered sampling design using statistical survey methods. RESULTS: A total of 142 adults were surveyed and had a weighted mean age of 36 years (range 18-81). The most prevalent diseases were depression (12%) and chronic respiratory disease (8%), while lifetime prevalence of cancer, arthritis, myocardial infarction, and diabetes were all less than 5%. Fifteen percent of respondents were hypertensive and the majority (67%) was unaware of their condition. Being overweight or obese was common for both genders (53%), but abdominal obesity was more prevalent in women (54% vs. 10% in men, p < 0.001). Thirty-five percent of men binge drank and 34% reported current smoking; these behaviors were less common among women (4% binge drank, p < 0.001; 8% smoked, p = 0.002). Increasing age was associated with an increased risk of abdominal obesity (Odds Ratio (OR) = 1.04, 95% CI = 1.01, 1.07, p = 0.02), hypertension (OR = 1.06, 95% CI = 1.02, 1.10, p = 0.006), arthritis (OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 1.03, 1.11, p < 0.001) and cancer (OR = 1.13, 95% CI = 1.07, 1.20, p < 0.001) in adjusted models. The prevalences of other NCDs and related risk factors were similar when stratified by age or gender. CONCLUSIONS: This study underlines the important burden of noncommunicable disease in informal settlements in Peru and suggests that prevention and treatment interventions could be optimized according to age and gender.

Prevalence and predictors of cervicitis in female sex workers in Peru: an observational study.

BACKGROUND: Cervicitis is a syndrome of cervical inflammation and a common condition in female sex workers (FSW), a subpopulation vulnerable to sexually transmitted infections. Local data is essential for guiding syndromic management of cervicitis in FSW working in Peru. We sought to describe the prevalence and etiologies of cervicitis in this population. We also aimed to identify sociodemographic, behavioral and biological factors associated with cervicitis, including bacterial vaginosis (BV), a condition with a possible role in cervicitis. METHODS: FSW 18 years of age or older presenting to a free public sexual health clinic in Callao-Lima, Peru were eligible for inclusion upon consent. 467 participants completed a face-to-face questionnaire and underwent genital examination. Vaginal, endocervical and blood samples were collected and tested for C. trachomatis (CT), N. gonorrhea (GC), T. vaginalis (TV), BV, HIV and Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus -1. Logistic regression was used to determine whether sociodemographic, behavioral, or other sexual health related characteristics were associated with the diagnosis of cervicitis. RESULTS: Cervicitis was detected in 99 (24.9%) of 397 FSW. The presence of cervicitis was unable to be determined in 70 participants. In women with cervicitis, CT was present in 4.6% (4/87), TV in 4.0% (4/99), GC in 0% (0/87) and no pathogen was detected on cervical microbiology in 91.9% (91/99). BV was detected on vaginal microbiology in 36.9% (31/84) of cervicitis cases. BV was more common in women with cervicitis, however this association did not reach statistical significance (aOR = 1.47 [0.87, 2.48], p = 0.15). Other STI were not associated with cervicitis. Regular clinic attendance (aOR = 0.54 [0.34, 0.87], p = 0.01) and Ecuadorian nationality (aOR = 0.31 [0.13, 0.76], p = 0.01) were associated with reduced risk of cervicitis. CONCLUSIONS: Cervicitis was common in FSW working Peru and was predominantly nongonococcal and non-chlamydial in etiology. Further study is warranted to clarify the role of BV and other emerging cervicitis pathogens in this population. The current Peruvian program of free health checks for FSW may be effective for reducing rates of cervicitis. The protective effect of Ecuadorian nationality prompts further study.

Detection of human leptospirosis as a cause of acute fever by capture ELISA using a Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni (M20) derived antigen.

BACKGROUND: Leptospirosis is a potentially lethal zoonosis mainly affecting low-resource tropical countries, including Peru and its neighbouring countries. Timely diagnosis of leptospirosis is critical but may be challenging in the regions where it is most prevalent. The serodiagnostic gold standard microagglutination test (MAT) may be technically prohibitive. Our objective in this study was to assess the sensitivity, specificity, and predictive value of an IgM antibody capture enzyme-linked immunoassay (MAC-ELISA) derived from the M20 strain of Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni (M20) by comparison to MAT, which was used as the gold standard method of diagnosis. METHODS: Acute and convalescent sera from participants participating in a passive febrile surveillance study in multiple regions of Peru were tested by both IgM MAC-ELISA and MAT. The sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value (PPV, NPV) of the MAC-ELISA assay for acute, convalescent and paired sera by comparison to MAT were calculated. RESULTS: The sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of the MAC-ELISA assay for acute sera were 92.3%, 56.0%, 35.3% and 96.6% respectively. For convalescent sera, the sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of the MAC-ELISA assay were 93.3%, 51.5%, 63.6% and 89.5% respectively. For paired sera, the sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of the MAC-ELISA assay were 93.6%, 37.5%, 59.2%, 85.7% respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The M20 MAC-ELISA assay performed with a high sensitivity and low specificity in the acute phase of illness. Sensitivity was similar as compared with MAT in the convalescent phase and specificity remained low. Paired sera were the most sensitive but least specific by comparison to MAT serodiagnosis. NPV for acute, convalescent and paired sera was high. The limited specificity and high sensitivity of the MAC-ELISA IgM suggests that it would be most valuable to exclude leptospirosis in low-resource regions that lack immediate access to definitive reference laboratory techniques such as MAT.

The 2017 Solar Eclipse: Implementing Enhanced Syndromic Surveillance on the Path of Totality in Kentucky.

OBJECTIVE: The 2017 solar eclipse was associated with mass gatherings in many of the 14 states along the path of totality. The Kentucky Department for Public Health implemented an enhanced syndromic surveillance system to detect increases in emergency department (ED) visits and other health care needs near Hopkinsville, Kentucky, where the point of greatest eclipse occurred. METHODS: EDs flagged visits of patients who participated in eclipse events from August 17-22. Data from 14 area emergency medical services and 26 first-aid stations were also monitored to detect health-related events occurring during the eclipse period. RESULTS: Forty-four potential eclipse event-related visits were identified, primarily injuries, gastrointestinal illness, and heat-related illness. First-aid stations and emergency medical services commonly attended to patients with pain and heat-related illness. CONCLUSIONS: Kentucky's experience during the eclipse demonstrated the value of patient visit flagging to describe the disease burden during a mass gathering and to investigate epidemiological links between cases. A close collaboration between public health authorities within and across jurisdictions, health information exchanges, hospitals, and other first-response care providers will optimize health surveillance activities before, during, and after mass gatherings.

Annual home-based HIV testing in the Chókwè Health Demographic Surveillance System, Mozambique, 2014 to 2019: serial population-based survey evaluation.

INTRODUCTION: WHO recommends implementing a mix of community and facility testing strategies to diagnose 95% of persons living with HIV (PLHIV). In Mozambique, a country with an estimated 506,000 undiagnosed PLHIV, use of home-based HIV testing services (HBHTS) to help achieve the 95% target has not been evaluated. METHODS: HBHTS was provided at 20,000 households in the Chókwè Health Demographic Surveillance System (CHDSS), Mozambique, in annual rounds (R) during 2014 to 2019. Trends in prevalence of HIV infection, prior HIV diagnosis among PLHIV (diagnostic coverage), and undiagnosed HIV infection were assessed with three population-based surveys conducted in R1 (04/2014 to 04/2015), R3 (03/2016 to 12/2016), and R5 (04/2018 to 03/2019) of residents aged 15 to 59 years. Counts of patients aged ≥15 years tested for HIV in CHDSS healthcare facilities were obtained from routine reports. RESULTS: During 2014 to 2019, counsellors conducted 92,512 home-based HIV tests and newly diagnosed 3711 residents aged 15 to 59 years. Prevalence of HIV infection was stable (R1, 25.1%; R3 23.6%; R5 22.9%; p-value, 0.19). After the first two rounds (44,825 home-based tests; 31,717 facility-based tests), diagnostic coverage increased from 73.8% (95% CI 70.3 to 77.2) in R1 to 93.0% (95% CI 91.3 to 94.7) in R3, and prevalence of undiagnosed HIV infection decreased from 6.6% (95% CI 5.6 to 7.5) in R1 to 1.7% (95% CI 1.2 to 2.1) in R3. After two more rounds (32,226 home-based tests; 46,003 facility-based tests), diagnostic coverage was 95.4% (95% CI 93.7 to 97.1) and prevalence of undiagnosed HIV infection was 1.1% (95% CI 0.7 to 1.5) in R5. Prevalence of having last tested at home was 12.7% (95% CI 11.3 to 14.0) in R1, 45.2% (95% CI 43.4 to 47.0) in R3, and 41.4% (95% CI 39.5 to 43.2) in R5, and prevalence of having last tested at a healthcare facility was 45.3% (95% CI 43.3 to 47.3) in R1, 40.1% (95% CI 38.4 to 41.8) in R3, and 45.2% (95% CI 43.3 to 47.0) in R5. CONCLUSIONS: HBHTS successfully augmented facility-based testing to achieve HIV diagnostic coverage in a high-burden community of Mozambique. HBHTS should be considered in sub-Saharan Africa communities striving to diagnose 95% of persons living with HIV.

Assessment of the Feasibility and Acceptability of Using Water Pasteurization Indicators to Increase Access to Safe Drinking Water in the Peruvian Amazon.

Approximately two billion people lack access to microbiologically safe drinking water globally. Boiling is the most popular household water treatment method and significantly reduces diarrheal disease, but is often practiced inconsistently or ineffectively. The use of low-cost technologies to improve boiling is one approach with potential for increasing access to safe drinking water. We conducted household trials to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of water pasteurization indicators (WAPIs) in the Peruvian Amazon in 2015. A total of 28 randomly selected households were enrolled from a rural and a peri-urban community. All households trialed two WAPI designs, each for a 2-week period. Ninety-six percent of participants demonstrated the correct use of the WAPIs at the end of each trial, and 88% expressed satisfaction with both WAPI models. Ease of use, short treatment time, knowledge of the association between WAPI use and improved health, and the taste of treated water were among the key factors that influenced acceptability. Ease of use was the key factor that influenced design preference. Participants in both communities preferred a WAPI with a plastic box that floated on the water's surface compared with a WAPI with a wire that was dipped into the pot of drinking water while it was heating (77% versus 15%, P < 0.001); we selected the box design for a subsequent randomized trial of this intervention. The high feasibility and acceptability of the WAPIs in this study suggest that these interventions have potential to increase access to safe water in resource-limited settings.

Fecal Contamination of Drinking Water Was Associated with Diarrheal Pathogen Carriage among Children Younger than 5 Years in Three Peruvian Rural Communities.

Drinking water contamination is a frequent problem in developing countries and could be associated with bacterial pathogen carriage in feces. We evaluated the association between the risk of drinking water and bacterial carrier status in children younger than 5 years in a cross-sectional study conducted in 199 households from three Peruvian rural communities. Fecal samples from children were screened for pathogenic Aeromonas, Campylobacter, and Vibrio species, as well as for Enterobacteriaceae, including pathogenic Escherichia coli. The drinking water risk was determined using E. coli as an indicator of contamination. Nineteen (9.5%) children were colonized with pathogens and classified as carriers, all without diarrhea symptoms. Of 199 drinking water samples, 38 (19.1%) were classified as very high risk because of high fecal contamination (> 100 E. coli/100 mL). Shared-use water sources, daily washing of containers, and washing using only water were associated with higher prevalence of bacterial carriage, whereas there was no association between households reporting boiling and chlorination of water and carrier status. The prevalence of carriage in children exposed to very high-risk water was 2.82 (95% CI: 1.21-6.59) times the prevalence of those who consumed less contaminated water, adjusted by the water source and daily washing. Our results suggest that household drinking water plays an important role in the generation of carriers with diarrheal pathogens. Our findings also highlight the importance of interventions to ensure the safety of drinking water. Further studies are needed to validate the observed association and determine its significance with respect to diarrhea in the community.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of women of childbearing age testing negative for Zika virus in Kentucky, 2016.

Because infection with Zika virus during pregnancy can cause microcephaly and other birth defects, women of childbearing age are an important population for targeting of Zika-related public health messaging. To improve Zika-related communication and outreach in Kentucky, we conducted a survey to assess Zika knowledge, attitudes, and practices among all women of childbearing age who received a negative Zika test result from the state public health laboratory during February to July 2016. Although >90% of the 55 respondents knew the virus could be transmitted by mosquitoes and caused birth defects, just 56% (31/55) knew the virus could be sexually transmitted. These findings underscore the importance of continued efforts by CDC and state and local health departments to educate female travelers of childbearing age about risks for and prevention of Zika virus infection, particularly emphasizing use of condoms and abstinence to prevent transmission.

The Changing Epidemiology of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 Infection in Peruvian Female Sex Workers, 1993-2010.

Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) was the first human retrovirus to be reported and is associated with neoplastic, neurological, autoimmune, and infectious complications. HTLV-1 is endemic in Peru, with the highest prevalence reported among commercial sex workers. Seroprevalence data collected from Peruvian female sex workers (FSWs) working in Callao over three study periods between 1993 and 2010 were used to examine the secular trend in HTLV-1 prevalence. Between 1993 and 2010, the prevalence of HTLV-1 decreased significantly from 14.5% to 3.1% (P < 0.01). The prevalence of HTLV-1 seropositivity differed significantly by birth cohort (1922-1959, 1960-1969, 1970-1979, and 1980-1992), and for each of the four birth cohorts, the prevalence did not significantly decrease by screening year (P > 0.07). There were no cases of HTLV-1 detected among FSW born after 1979 (N = 224). Participant characteristics associated with HTLV-1 seropositivity were birth in the Andes Mountains region, age, increased time in sex work, younger age of starting sex work, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seropositivity. The secular trend in declining prevalence persisted after adjustment for age, time in sex work, place of birth, and HIV serostatus, with the odds of HTLV-1 infection decreasing approximately 16% per year (adjusted odds ratio = 0.84, 95% confidence interval = 0.78, 0.90). The increasing use of condoms by later birth cohorts noted in our analysis, as well as the increasing availability of free condoms provided by the Peruvian government-which started in the late 1980s before this study-may have been responsible for declining HTLV seroprevalence.

Annual home-based HIV testing in the Chókwè Health Demographic Surveillance System, Mozambique, 2014 to 2019: serial population-based survey evaluation

Introduction: WHO recommends implementing a mix of community and facility testing strategies to diagnose 95% of persons living with HIV (PLHIV). In Mozambique, a country with an estimated 506,000 undiagnosed PLHIV, use of home-based HIV testing services (HBHTS) to help achieve the 95% target has not been evaluated. Methods: HBHTS was provided at 20,000 households in the Chókwè Health Demographic Surveillance System (CHDSS), Mozambique, in annual rounds (R) during 2014 to 2019. Trends in prevalence of HIV infection, prior HIV diagnosis among PLHIV (diagnostic coverage), and undiagnosed HIV infection were assessed with three population-based surveys conducted in R1 (04/2014 to 04/2015), R3 (03/2016 to 12/2016), and R5 (04/2018 to 03/2019) of residents aged 15 to 59 years. Counts of patients aged ≥15 years tested for HIV in CHDSS healthcare facilities were obtained from routine reports. Results: During 2014 to 2019, counsellors conducted 92,512 home-based HIV tests and newly diagnosed 3711 residents aged 15 to 59 years. Prevalence of HIV infection was stable (R1, 25.1%; R3 23.6%; R5 22.9%; p-value, 0.19). After the first two rounds (44,825 home-based tests; 31,717 facility-based tests), diagnostic coverage increased from 73.8% (95% CI 70.3 to 77.2) in R1 to 93.0% (95% CI 91.3 to 94.7) in R3, and prevalence of undiagnosed HIV infection decreased from 6.6% (95% CI 5.6 to 7.5) in R1 to 1.7% (95% CI 1.2 to 2.1) in R3. After two more rounds (32,226 home-based tests; 46,003 facility-based tests), diagnostic coverage was 95.4% (95% CI 93.7 to 97.1) and prevalence of undiagnosed HIV infection was 1.1% (95% CI 0.7 to 1.5) in R5. Prevalence of having last tested at home was 12.7% (95% CI 11.3 to 14.0) in R1, 45.2% (95% CI 43.4 to 47.0) in R3, and 41.4% (95% CI 39.5 to 43.2) in R5, and prevalence of having last tested at a healthcare facility was 45.3% (95% CI 43.3 to 47.3) in R1, 40.1% (95% CI 38.4 to 41.8) in R3, and 45.2% (95% CI 43.3 to 47.0) in R5. Conclusions: HBHTS successfully augmented facility-based testing to achieve HIV diagnostic coverage in a high-burden community of Mozambique. HBHTS should be considered in sub-Saharan Africa communities striving to diagnose 95% of persons living with HIV.

"Improved" But Not Necessarily Safe: An Assessment of Fecal Contamination of Household Drinking Water in Rural Peru.

The indicator used to measure progress toward the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for water is access to an improved water supply. However, improved supplies are frequently fecally contaminated in developing countries. We examined factors associated with Escherichia coli contamination of improved water supplies in rural Pisco province, Peru. A random sample of 207 households with at least one child less than 5 years old was surveyed, and water samples from the source and storage container were tested for E. coli contamination. Although over 90% of households used an improved water source, 47% of source and 43% of stored water samples were contaminated with E. coli. Pouring or using a spigot to obtain water from the storage container instead of dipping a hand or object was associated with decreased risk of contamination of stored water (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] = 0.58, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.42, 0.80). Container cleanliness (aPR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.45, 1.00) and correct handwashing technique (aPR = 0.62, 95% CI = 0.42, 0.90) were also associated with decreased contamination risk. These findings highlighted the limitations of improved water supplies as an indicator of safe water access. To ensure water safety in the home, household water treatment and improved hygiene, water handling, and storage practices should be promoted.

Epidemiology and Genetic Characterization of Noroviruses among Adults in an Endemic Setting, Peruvian Amazon Basin, 2004-2011.

BACKGROUND: Successful vaccination strategies against norovirus will require understanding the burden of disease and relevant genotypes in populations. However, few data are available from cohort studies of adults living in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a nested case-control study within a Peruvian military cohort to characterize the burden of norovirus infection, predominant genotypes, and associated symptoms from 2004 through 2011. Randomly selected case and control stools were tested for norovirus, bacteria, and parasites. The odds ratio of the association between norovirus infection and diarrhea was estimated using multiple logistic regression and co-infection adjusted attributable fractions were calculated. RESULTS: Of the 3,818 cohort study participants, 624 developed diarrhea. Overall and norovirus-associated diarrhea incidence rates were 42.3 and 6.0 per 100 person-years, respectively. The most prevalent norovirus genogroup was GII (72.5%, 29/40), which was associated with diarrhea (AOR 3.4, 95% CI: 1.3-8.7, P = 0.012). The co-infection adjusted GII attributable fraction was 6.4%. DISCUSSION: Norovirus was a frequent cause of diarrhea in an adult population followed longitudinally in an LMIC setting. Vaccine strategies should consider targeting adults in endemic settings and special populations that could serve as community transmission sources.

Caregiver perceptions of child nutritional status in Magallanes, Chile.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to identify risk factors for childhood overweight and obesity and the accuracy of caregivers'€™ perceptions of their child's nutritional status in the Magallanes region, Patagonia, Chile. METHODS: Heights and weights of children attending day care centers and elementary schools were collected and caregivers completed questionnaires regarding their child's health and behavior. The child's nutritional status was diagnosed using the 2006 WHO Child Growth Standards (for children under age 6) and the CDC 2000 Growth Charts (for children age 6 and older). Logistic regression was used to evaluate factors related to childhood overweight/obesity and weight underestimation by caregivers of overweight or obese children. RESULTS: Of the 795 children included in the study, 247 (31.1%) were overweight and 223 (28.1%) were obese. Risk factors for overweight/obesity included younger age and being perceived to eat more than normal by the caregiver. Caregivers were less likely to underestimate their child's weight if the child was older or if the caregiver believed the child ate more than a normal amount. CONCLUSIONS: There is a high prevalence of overweight and obesity among children in Magallanes and the majority of caregivers underestimate the extent of the problem in their children.

Symptoms and risk factors for stroke in a community-based observational sample in Viet Nam.

BACKGROUND: Viet Nam is experiencing a health transition from infectious to chronic disease. Data on cardiovascular diseases, including strokes, are limited. METHODS: Data were randomly collected from six communities in Da Nang, Viet Nam, on participant demographics, medical history, blood pressure, anthropometrics and health behavior using World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Stroke symptoms were collected by self-report with the standardized Questionnaire for Verifying Stroke Free Status. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with the presence of stroke symptoms. RESULTS: One thousand six hundred and twenty one adults were examined with a mean age of 52.0 years (± 12.5 years), of which 56.1% were women. 27.3% of the participants were found to have hypertension, 26.2% used tobacco, and 16.1% were overweight. More than two-thirds of the participants with hypertension were unaware of their condition. Almost one fourth of the participants were identified by the questionnaire as previously experiencing at least one stroke symptom. Age, rural residence, and education were associated with the presence of stroke symptoms. Models adjusted for demographics found hypertension, high cholesterol, reported severe chest pain, former smoking, and being overweight to be associated with a higher prevalence of stroke symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The high frequency of stroke symptoms in Da Nang calls for further evaluation and interventions to reduce hypertension and other risk factors for chronic disease in Viet Nam and other health transition countries.