Expression of regulatory neuropeptides in the hypothalamus of red deer (Cervus elaphus) reveals anomalous relationships in the seasonal control of appetite and reproduction.

Red deer are seasonal with respect to reproduction and food intake, so we tested the hypothesis that their brains would show seasonal changes in numbers of cells containing hypothalamic neuropeptides that regulate these functions. We examined the brains of male and female deer in non-breeding and breeding seasons to quantify the production of kisspeptin, gonadotropin inhibitory hormone (GnIH), neuropeptide Y (NPY) and γ-melanocyte stimulating hormone (γ-MSH - an index of pro-opiomelanocortin production), using immunohistochemistry. These neuropeptides are likely to be involved in the regulation of reproductive function and appetite. During the annual breeding season there were more cells producing kisspeptin in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus than during the non-breeding season in males and females whereas there was no seasonal difference in the expression of GnIH. There were more cells producing the appetite stimulating peptide, NPY, in the arcuate/median eminence regions of the hypothalamus of females during the non-breeding season whereas the levels of an appetite suppressing peptide, γ-MSH, were highest in the breeding season. Male deer brains exhibited the converse, with NPY cell numbers highest in the breeding season and γ-MSH levels highest in the non-breeding season. These results support a role for kisspeptin as an important stimulatory regulator of seasonal breeding in deer, as in other species, but suggest a lack of involvement of GnIH in the seasonality of reproduction in deer. In the case of appetite regulation, the pattern exhibited by females for NPY and γ-MSH was as expected for the breeding and non-breeding seasons, based on previous studies of these peptides in sheep and the seasonal cycle of appetite reported for various species of deer. An inverse result in male deer most probably reflects the response of appetite regulating cells to negative energy balance during the mating season. Differences between the sexes in the seasonal changes in appetite regulating peptide cells of the hypothalamus present an interesting model for future studies.

Stress, cortisol, and obesity: a role for cortisol responsiveness in identifying individuals prone to obesity.

There is a strong inter-relationship between activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and energy homeostasis. Patients with abdominal obesity have elevated cortisol levels. Furthermore, stress and glucocorticoids act to control both food intake and energy expenditure. In particular, glucocorticoids are known to increase the consumption of foods enriched in fat and sugar. It is well-known that, in all species, the cortisol response to stress or adrenocorticotropin is highly variable. It has now emerged that cortisol responsiveness is an important determinant in the metabolic sequelae to stress. Sheep that are characterized as high-cortisol responders (HRs) have greater propensity to weight gain and obesity than low-cortisol responders (LRs). This difference in susceptibility to become obese is associated with a distinct metabolic, neuroendocrine, and behavioral phenotype. In women and ewes, HR individuals eat more in response to stress than LR. Furthermore, HR sheep have impaired melanocortin signaling and reduced skeletal muscle thermogenesis. High-cortisol responder sheep exhibit reactive coping strategies, whereas LRs exhibit proactive coping strategies. This complex set of traits leads to increased food intake and reduced energy expenditure in HR and thus, predisposition to obesity. We predict that cortisol responsiveness may be used as a marker to identify individuals who are at risk of weight gain and subsequent obesity.

Distribution of corticotropin-releasing factor binding protein-immunoreactivity in the rat hypothalamus: association with corticotropin-releasing factor-, urocortin 1- and vimentin-immunoreactive fibres.

Corticotropin-releasing factor binding protein (CRF-BP) is a 37-kDa protein with high affinity binding sites for both corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and urocortin 1. Previous studies have examined the distribution of CRF-BP mRNA and peptide within the central nervous system. Due to the predominant cortical localisation, very little is known about CRF-BP in subcortical structures including the hypothalamus. The present study employed immunohistochemistry to characterise the distribution of CRF-BP-like-immunoreactive (-ir) cells and fibres in the rat hypothalamus. Bipolar and multipolar CRF-BP-ir neurones were scattered throughout the rostro-caudal extent of the hypothalamus. Distinct clusters of CRF-BP-ir neurones were identified in the anterior and posterior parvocellular and dorsal cap subdivisions of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), as well as in the dorsal hypothalamic area, dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMN), ventral premammillary nucleus and zona incerta. CRF-BP-ir fibres extending from the third ventricle were found in the mediobasal hypothalamus and within the arcuate nucleus-median eminence region. Double immunostaining together with confocal microscopy demonstrated that the CRF-BP-immunostained fibres within the mediobasal hypothalamus coincided with vimentin immunostaining indicating that CRF-BP-ir is present within tanycytes. To define the relationship between CRF-BP-ir cells and endogenous ligands for CRF-BP, double immunohistochemistry was performed to examine possible sites within the hypothalamus where CRF- or urocortin 1-ir fibres innervate regions that contain CRF-BP-ir cell bodies. CRF-BP-ir cell bodies typically coincided with dense CRF-ir, but not urocortin 1-ir fibre innervation. CRF-ir fibre innervation was moderate to high within the anterior and posterior parvocellular subdivisions of the PVN, the dorsal cap of the PVN, DMN and the zona incerta; all regions that contained CRF-BP-ir cell populations. These studies demonstrate that, within the hypothalamus, CRF-BP-ir cells and fibres are concentrated within a circuitry known to be involved in mediating neuroendocrine and autonomic responses to stress.

High cortisol response to adrenocorticotrophic hormone identifies ewes with reduced melanocortin signalling and increased propensity to obesity.

We have identified female sheep that have either high (HR) or low (LR) cortisol responses to adrenocorticotrophin. On a high-energy diet, HR have greater propensity to weight gain and obesity, although the underlying mechanisms remain to be determined. Hypothalamic appetite-regulating peptides (ARP) exert reciprocal effects on food intake and energy expenditure. We aimed to quantify the expression and function of ARP in LR and HR ewes (n = 4 per group). Gene expression for neuropeptide Y (NPY), agouti-related peptide (AgRP) pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), orexin and the melanocortin receptors (MC3R and MC4R) was measured by in situ hybridisation. Expression of NPY, AgRP and POMC was similar in HR and LR, although expression of orexin, MCH, MC3R and MC4R was higher (P < 0.05) in LR. Intracerebroventricular infusions of a low dose (50 µg/h) of NPY, α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (αMSH), orexin and MCH were performed between 10.00 h and 16.00 h in meal-fed ewes (n = 6-7 per group). Skeletal muscle and retroperitoneal (RP) fat temperatures were recorded using dataloggers. Post-prandial thermogenesis in muscle was higher (P < 0.05) in LR. There was little effect of ARP infusion on muscle or fat temperature in either group. Infusion of these doses of NPY, MCH or orexin did not stimulate food intake in meal-fed ewes, although αMSH reduced (P < 0.01) food intake in LR only. Using 24-h ARP infusions with ad lib. feeding, NPY increased (P < 0.001) food intake in both groups but αMSH was only effective in LR (P < 0.05). In summary, we show that HR are resistant to the satiety effects of αMSH and this coincides with a reduced expression of both the MC3R and MC4R in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. We conclude that an increased propensity to obesity in HR female sheep is associated with reduced melanocortin signalling.

Differences in mitochondrial DNA inheritance and function align with body conformation in genetically lean and fat sheep.

Body weight and adiposity are determined by the balance between energy intake, energy expenditure, and nutrient deposition. We have identified differences in appetite-regulating peptides in sheep selectively bred to be either lean or fat, wherein gene expression for orexin and melanin-concentrating hormone are elevated in the lean group. Despite this, the underlying mechanisms leading to differences in body composition in the lean and fat lines remains unknown. We measured postprandial temperature in adipose tissue and muscle to ascertain whether a difference in thermogenesis is associated with the difference in body composition in genetically lean (n = 8) and fat (n = 12) ewes. Body weight was higher (P < 0.01) but percent fat mass was lower (P < 0.001) in the lean group. The percent lean mass was similar in lean and fat groups. Animals received intracerebroventricular cannulae and temperature probes implanted into the retroperitoneal fat and the hind-limb skeletal muscle (vastus lateralis). Animals were meal fed (1100-1600 h) to entrain postprandial thermogenesis. Food intake was similar between lean and fat animals. Postprandial thermogenesis was greater (P < 0.05) in the retroperitoneal adipose tissue of lean animals but not in skeletal muscle. Intracerebroventricular infusion of leptin reduced (P< 0.05) food intake by an equal extent in both groups. Postprandial expression of UCP1 mRNA was greater (P < 0.05) in retroperitoneal fat of lean animals, with similar UCP3 expression in skeletal muscle. Mitochondrial genome sequencing indicated haplotypic clustering in lean and fat animals within both the encoding and nonencoding regions. This demonstrates that differences in body composition may be underpinned by differences in thermogenesis, specifically within adipose tissue. Furthermore, thermogenic differences may be associated with specific mitochondrial DNA haplotypes, suggesting a strong genetic component inherited through the maternal lineage.

Long-term alterations in adiposity affect the expression of melanin-concentrating hormone and enkephalin but not proopiomelanocortin in the hypothalamus of ovariectomized ewes.

We have developed a ruminant model to study long-term alterations in adiposity on the expression of appetite-regulating peptides in the hypothalamus. In this model endocrine and metabolic status are fully defined as well as body composition. The current study sought to define the effects of altered adiposity on the expression of genes for neuropeptide Y (NPY), POMC, enkephalin (ENK), and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH). Ovariectomized ewes with high (60 +/- 1 kg) (FAT) or low (37 +/- 3 kg) body weights (THIN) were blood sampled every 10 min for 8 h to determine metabolic and endocrine status. The animals were then killed and the brains perfused for in situ hybridization. Body composition analysis was performed on the carcass using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry; this indicated that the FAT animals were 36 +/- 1% fat, whereas the THIN animals were 15 +/- 2% fat. The LH interpulse interval was lower and mean GH concentrations were higher in the THIN animals; cortisol and TSH levels were not different between the two groups but free T4 and free T3 levels were lower; the FT3:FT4 ratio was higher in THIN ewes. Levels of insulin, lactate, and nonesterified fatty acids were lower in the THIN group, and plasma glucose and urea concentrations were similar in THIN and FAT animals. Levels of gene expression of NPY and MCH were higher in THIN ewes. POMC expression was similar in the two groups. In the THIN animals, ENK expression was lower in the paraventricular and ventromedial nuclei but higher in the periventricular region. In conclusion, we have shown that alterations in adiposity influence the expression of appetite-regulating peptides in the absence of ovarian steroids. The appetite stimulators, NPY and MCH, appear to be involved in the metabolic response to altered adiposity, whereas ENK in the periventricular region may be linked to the secretion of GH and possibly LH. Our results suggest that altered expression of appetite- regulating peptides can be linked with the endocrine and metabolic adaptations that occur with long-term changes in adiposity.

Central administration of leptin to ovariectomized ewes inhibits food intake without affecting the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland: evidence for a dissociation of effects on appetite and neuroendocrine function.

We have studied the effect of leptin on food intake and neuroendocrine function in ovariectomized ewes. Groups (n = 5) received intracerebroventricular infusions of either vehicle or leptin (20 microg/h) for 3 days and were blood sampled over 6 h on days -1, 2, and for 3 h on day 3 relative to the onset of the infusion. The animals were then killed to measure hypothalamic neuropeptide Y expression by in situ hybridization. Plasma samples were assayed for metabolic parameters and pituitary hormones. Food intake was reduced by leptin, but did not change in controls. Leptin treatment elevated plasma lactate and nonesterified fatty acids, but did not affect glucose or insulin levels, indicating a state of negative energy balance that was met by the mobilization of body stores. Pulse analysis showed that the secretion of LH and GH was not affected by leptin treatment, nor were the mean plasma concentrations of FSH, PRL, or cortisol. Expression of messenger RNA for neuropeptide Y in the arcuate nucleus was reduced by the infusion of leptin, primarily due to reduced expression per cell rather than a reduction in the number of cells observed. Thus, the action of leptin to inhibit food intake is dissociated from neuroendocrine function. These results suggest that the metabolic effects of leptin are mediated via neuronal systems that possess leptin receptors rather than via endocrine effects.

Long-term alteration in bodyweight and food restriction does not affect the gene expression of either preproorexin or prodynorphin in the sheep.

Various hypothalamic neuropeptides are involved in central regulation of food intake and expression of genes encoding these peptides changes with alterations in the bodyweight/metabolic status/nutritional status. Orexin(s) and dynorphin have been implicated in the regulation of appetite and neuroendocrine systems, but the function of these peptides is not well understood. We have employed in situ hybridization to examine the effects of long-term alterations in the bodyweight on expression of mRNA for preproorexin and prodynorphin in the putative feeding centers of the ovine hypothalamus. Expression of preproorexin was localized to the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus, perifornical area and lateral hypothalamic area. Cells expressing prodynorphin were localized to the periventricular, supraoptic, paraventricular, ventromedial hypothalamic nuclei and the thalamus. Small numbers of single scattered cells were seen in other brain areas. A few scattered prodynorphin-expressing cells were found in the lateral hypothalamic area but, in contrast to observations in the rat, there was no colocalization with preproorexin. Long-term alterations in the bodyweight did not influence the level of expression of preproorexin or prodynorphin. These findings suggest that orexin and dynorphin may not play a direct role in appetite regulation in sheep, although regulation at the level of the receptors for these peptides remains a possibility.

Long-term alterations in body weight do not affect the expression of melanocortin receptor-3 and -4 mRNA in the ovine hypothalamus.

The pro-opiomelanocortin-derived peptides and the melanocortin receptors are implicated in various functions within the CNS including the regulation of food intake. In the present study, we used in situ hybridization, with specific 35S-labelled ovine riboprobes to map the expression of melanocortin receptor-3 (MC3-R) and -4 (MC4-R) mRNA in the diencephalon and brainstem of normal female sheep. Furthermore, we examined the effect of long-term alterations in energy balance on the distribution and expression of MC3-R and MC4-R mRNA in food-restricted and ad libitum-fed ovariectomized female sheep. The distribution of melanocortin receptors generally resembled that of the rat. A high number of MC3-R-labelled cells were seen in the ventral division of the lateral septum and the medial preoptic area. In the hypothalamus, a moderate number of MC3-R-labelled cells was observed in the lateral hypothalamic area while other nuclear groups had low to intermediate numbers of MC3-R-labelled cells. The distribution of MC4-R mRNA was generally similar to that of MC3-R mRNA in the septal/preoptic and hypothalamic regions, with a high number of labelled cells present in the intermediate division of the lateral septum. Within the hypothalamus, no MC4-R mRNA expression was observed in the arcuate nucleus. There was more widespread distribution of moderate to low numbers of MC4-R mRNA-expressing cells in the brainstem compared to that of MC3-R mRNA. Unlike findings in the rat, only a low number of cells expressed melanocortin receptor mRNA in the ovine hypothalamic nuclei associated with feeding behavior. The number of melanocortin receptor-labelled cells and the level of expression (silver grains/cell) in the hypothalamic feeding centers was similar in food-restricted and ad libitum-fed animals. These findings suggest that long-term alterations in metabolic status do not change the melanocortin receptor mRNA distribution and/or expression in the sheep hypothalamus.

Chronic food-restriction alters the expression of somatostatin and growth hormone-releasing hormone in the ovariectomised ewe.

Changes in the secretion of GH induced by long-term alterations in nutritional status are thought to result from alterations in somatostatin (SRIF) and growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) at the level of the hypothalamus. To date however, the effect of nutrition on the gene expression of SRIF and GHRH in a species where GH secretion is increased by food restriction, as is the case for the sheep and human, remains unknown. We determined the effect of under-nutrition on the expression of SRIF and GHRH in the hypothalamus of sheep. Ovariectomised ewes were randomly divided into two groups and either fed an ad lib diet (n=6) or a restricted diet of 500 g lucerne chaff per day (food-restricted; n=5) for 7 months. In situ hybridisation was used to study hypothalamic gene expression for GHRH, SRIF and galanin (GAL). The food-restricted animals had elevated plasma concentrations of GH; this was associated with an increase in GHRH mRNA levels in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) and reduced SRIF in the rostral periventricular nucleus and ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus. The level of gene expression of GAL in the ARC and SRIF in the caudal periventricular nucleus was similar in ad lib and food-restricted animals. In conclusion, the effect of chronic food-restriction on the secretion of GH reflects increased GHRH and reduced SRIF synthesis in the hypothalamus.

Intracerebroventricular infusion of leptin elevates the secretion of luteinising hormone without affecting food intake in long-term food-restricted sheep, but increases growth hormone irrespective of bodyweight.

Leptin can act as a satiety factor and exert neuroendocrine effects, but most studies have been performed in fasted animals. We aimed to determine the effect of chronic under-nutrition on the response to a 3-day intracerebroventricular infusion of leptin with regard to food intake and the secretion of pituitary hormones. Ovariectomised ewes (n=6) had a mean (+/-s.e.m. ) bodyweight of 56+/-0.8 kg on a diet available ad libitum (ad lib) or 33.4+/-1 kg on a restricted diet. The differential bodyweight was achieved by dietary means over a period of 6 months prior to the commencement of the study. Leptin (4 microg/h) or vehicle (artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF)) was infused into the third cerebral ventricle for 3 days. Blood samples were taken prior to commencement and on day 3 of infusion for the assay of plasma hormone levels. The experiment was repeated one week later in a cross-over design. Food intake and metabolic status were monitored daily. The luteinising hormone (LH) pulse amplitude was lower (P<0.05) but plasma growth hormone (GH) levels were higher (P<0.05) in the food-restricted animals. Plasma levels of glucose, lactate, insulin, urea and triglycerides were similar in the two groups but non-esterified fatty acid levels were higher (P<0.01) in the animals on an ad lib diet. Leptin reduced (P<0.05) food intake only in the animals fed an ad lib diet. Leptin increased (P<0.05) the secretion of LH in the food-restricted group only and increased (P<0.05) GH irrespective of bodyweight. In conclusion, leptin does not alter food intake in animals on a restricted diet but can increase the secretion of LH in the same animals. The treatment of leptin was not sufficient to reduce plasma GH levels in the food-restricted animals, suggesting that other factors or mechanisms must be involved in the regulation of this axis.

Links between the appetite regulating systems and the neuroendocrine hypothalamus: lessons from the sheep.

The hypothalamus is integral to the regulation of energy homeostasis and the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland. Consequently, hypothalamic systems may have a dual purpose in regulating both neuroendocrine function and appetite. To date, most studies investigating the interface between appetite and hormone secretion have been performed in rats or mice that have been acutely fasted or baring a genetic abnormality causing either obesity or aphagia. By contrast, various physiological models, including chronic food-restriction or photoperiodically driven changes in voluntary food intake, add further perspective to the issue. In this regard, sheep provide an innovative model whereby long-term changes in body weight or extended feeding rhythms can be investigated. This review compares and contrasts data obtained in different species with regard to the neuroendocrinology of appetite, and discusses the benefits and knowledge gained from using various nonrodent models with a particular emphasis on a ruminant species.

Leptin-mediated effects of undernutrition or fasting on luteinizing hormone and growth hormone secretion in ovariectomized ewes depend on the duration of metabolic perturbation.

We aimed to determine the importance of leptin in the regulation of luteinizing hormone (LH) and growth hormone (GH) secretion in ovariectomized (OVX) ewes. Lean and fat sheep were produced by dietary manipulation over 8 months and were then fasted for 32 h. Plasma concentrations of glucose, insulin and leptin were higher in the fat group. Fasting decreased plasma concentrations of glucose and insulin and increased concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) in fat and lean ewes, but leptin concentrations were reduced in the fat group only. Plasma GH concentrations were higher in the lean group and LH concentrations were lower; there was no effect of fasting. These data suggested that long-term changes in plasma leptin concentrations might affect LH and GH secretion, but acute changes with fasting had no effect. OVX ewes of normal body weight were fasted for 72 h with or without intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) infusion of leptin (4 microg/h), achieving similar metabolic effects to the 32 h fast. The 72-h fast increased LH pulse amplitude, mean GH and cortisol concentrations, but these changes were corrected towards normal by leptin treatment. Thus, leptin could attenuate fasting-induced alterations in the secretion of LH, GH and cortisol. Finally, we food-restricted OVX ewes for 4 months (lean), leading to a 20-kg reduction in body weight. Plasma concentrations of leptin and insulin were decreased, and plasma GH concentrations increased, but there was no effect on plasma concentrations of LH, glucose or NEFA. Icv infusion of leptin did not affect any endocrine or metabolic parameter in these ewes. In summary, maintenance of a lean or fat condition for a prolonged period (8 months) or an extended fasting (72 h) can affect LH and GH secretion, but short-term food restriction (4 months) affected only GH secretion and short-term fasting (32 h) had no effect on either LH or GH secretion. This is in spite of altered plasma leptin concentrations in all circumstances studied. Although leptin treatment can restore plasma concentrations of LH, GH and cortisol towards normal in sheep fasted for 72 h, some other factor(s) must signal to the brain to cause shifts in neuroendocrine function in other conditions where nutritional/metabolic status is altered.

Differential expression of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript and agouti related-protein in chronically food-restricted sheep.

Recently, much attention has focused on the role of the melanocortin system in the regulation of energy homeostasis, especially the satiety effects of the pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)-derived peptide alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH). We have found that POMC mRNA levels are similar in fat and thin sheep and the current study sought to further characterize the effects of nutritional status on the melanocortin system. To this end, we studied the expression of agouti-related peptide (AGRP) (an endogenous antagonist of alpha-MSH) and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), which is co-localized within POMC cells of the arcuate nucleus (ARC) in rodents. Twelve ovariectomized ewes were randomly divided into two groups and fed a maintenance (n=6) or restricted diet (n=6). At the time of experimentation, the animals had significantly (P<0.0001) different bodyweights (53.4+/-2.2 kg, ad libitum vs. 30.4+/-1.2 kg, food-restricted), which was largely due to altered body fat deposits. In situ hybridization was used to study the expression of POMC, AGRP and CART. The expression of POMC in the ARC was similar in ad libitum and food-restricted animals but the expression of AGRP was profoundly increased in the food-restricted group. The expression of CART was abundant throughout the hypothalamus but was not found in the ARC. In food-restricted animals, the expression of CART was lower in the retrochiasmatic nucleus (P<0.01), paraventricular nucleus (P<0.001), the dorsomedial nucleus and the lateral hypothalamic area (P<0.05), but was higher (P<0.01) in the posterior hypothalamic area. Thus, long-term changes in nutritional status have profound effects on the expression of AGRP and CART in the hypothalamus.

Correlations between VO2max and performance times of recreational triathletes.

Twenty-three recreational triathletes, 16 male and 7 female (mean = 21.7 yrs), performed max tethered swim (TS), cycle ergometer (CE), and treadmill run (TR) tests prior to participation in a competitive triathlon (0.91 km swim, 40 km cycle, 10 km run). The VO2max values on the TS, CE and TR were similar to those reported for trained athletes in each sport. As a group, cycling times were significantly correlated to both absolute (p less than 0.01) and relative (p less than 0.001) cycling VO2max (r = -0.57 and r = -0.78, respectively); running times significantly correlated with relative (p less than 0.001, r = -0.84) but not absolute (p greater than 0.05) running VO2max; and swimming times significantly correlated with absolute (p less than 0.01, r = -0.49) but not relative (p greater than 0.05) swimming VO2max. With the exception of absolute swim VO2max, the total performance times were significantly correlated to all VO2max values when expressed in both absolute and relative values. This study indicates the important role a moderately trained individual's aerobic power has in determining performances in endurance events such as the triathlon.

Altered "set-point" of the hypothalamus determines effects of cortisol on food intake, adiposity, and metabolic substrates in sheep.

Chronic elevation of glucocorticoid concentrations is detrimental to health. We investigated effects of chronic increase in plasma cortisol concentrations on energy balance and endocrine function in sheep. Because food intake and reproduction are regulated by photoperiod, we performed experiments in January (JAN) and August (AUG), when appetite drive is either high or low, respectively. Ovariectomized ewes were treated (intramuscularly) daily with 0.5mg Synacthen Depot(R) (synthetic adrenocorticotropin: ACTH) or saline for 4 wk. Blood samples were taken to measure plasma concentrations of cortisol, luteinising hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), growth hormone (GH), leptin, insulin, and glucose. Adrenocorticotropin treatment increased concentrations of cortisol. During JAN, treatment reduced food intake transiently, but increased food intake in AUG. Leptin concentrations were reduced and glucose concentrations were greater in AUG, and insulin concentrations were similar throughout the year. Treatment with ACTH increased leptin concentrations in AUG only, whereas insulin concentrations increased in JAN only. Synacthen treatment increased glucose concentrations, with a greater effect in JAN. Changes in truncal adiposity and ACTH-induced cortisol secretion were positively correlated in JAN and negatively correlated in AUG. Treatment reduced the plasma LH pulse frequency in JAN and AUG, with an effect on pulse amplitude in JAN only. Treatment did not affect plasma GH or FSH concentrations. We conclude that chronically elevated cortisol concentrations can affect food intake, adiposity, and reproductive function. In sheep, effects of chronically elevated cortisol concentrations on energy balance and metabolism depend upon metabolic setpoint, determined by circannual rhythms.

Adipose tissue hormones and the regulation of food intake.

Over the past decade, adipose tissue has been shown to produce numerous factors that act as hormones. Many of these act on the brain to regulate energy balance via dual effects on food intake and energy expenditure. These include well-characterised hormones such as leptin, oestrogen and glucocorticoids and novel factors such as adiponectin and resistin. This review provides a perspective on the role of these factors as lipostats.

Leptin and reproduction.

In the few years since leptin was identified as a satiety factor in rodents, it has been implicated in the regulation of various physiological processes. Leptin has been shown to promote sexual maturation in rodent species and a role in reproduction has been investigated at various sites within the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis. This review considers the evidence that leptin (or alteration in amount of body fat) can affect reproduction. There is evidence that leptin plays a permissive role in the onset of puberty, probably through action on the hypothalamus, where leptin receptors are found in cells that express appetite-regulating peptides. There is little evidence that leptin has a positive effect on the pituitary gonadotrophs and the gonads. There is also very little indication that leptin acts in an acute manner to regulate reproduction in the short term. It seems more likely that leptin is a 'barometer' of body condition that sends signals to the brain. Studies in vitro have shown negative effects on ovarian steroid production and there are no reports of effects on testicular function. Leptin concentrations in plasma increase in women during pregnancy, owing to production by the placenta but the functional significance of this is unknown. A number of factors that affect the production and action of leptin have yet to be studied in detail.

The relationship between speech perception and electrode discrimination in cochlear implantees.

Speech Intelligibility Index (SII) procedures were used to measure the amount of speech information perceived in five frequency bands (170-570, 570-1170, 1170-1768, 1768-2680, and 2680-5744 Hz) by 15 users of the Cochlear Ltd. CI-22M implant and Spectra-22/SPEAK processor. The speech information perceived was compared to that perceived by normal-hearing listeners. The ability of these subjects to discriminate between stimulation on adjacent electrodes corresponding to each frequency band was also investigated, using a 4IFC procedure with random current level variations of between 0% and 60% of the dynamic range. Relative to normal-hearing listeners, speech information was, on average, significantly more reduced in the four frequency regions between 170 and 2680 Hz than in the region 2680-5744 Hz. There was a significant correlation between electrode discrimination ability (when the random level variation encompassed 20% or more of the dynamic range) and the amount of speech information perceived in the four frequency regions between 170 and 2680 Hz. There was no such correlation in the region 2680-5744 Hz, regardless of the extent of random level variation. These results indicate that speech information in the low to medium frequencies is more difficult for implantees to perceive, that this difficulty is correlated with the difficulty in discriminating electrode place in the presence of random loudness variations, and that fine spectral discrimination may be relatively more important in the vowel-formant regions than in higher frequency regions.