Presence of Gram-negative bacteria and Staphylococcus aureus on the skin of blood donors in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

BACKGROUND: Skin bacteria may contaminate blood products but few data are available on sub-Saharan Africa (sSA). We assessed the presence of Gram-negative bacteria and Staphylococcus aureus on blood donor skin and evaluated skin antisepsis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Among blood donors at the National Blood Transfusion Center (NBTC) and at a rural hospital, the antecubital fossa skin of the non-disinfected arm (not used for blood collection) was swabbed (25cm2 surface) and cultured for total and Gram-negative bacterial counts. Bacteria were identified with MALDI-TOF and tested for antibiotic susceptibility by disk diffusion. For evaluation of the NBTC antisepsis procedure (i.e., ethanol 70%), the culture results of the disinfected arm (used for blood collection) were compared with those of the non-disinfected arm. RESULTS: Median total bacterial counts on 161 studied non-disinfected arms were 1065 Colony-Forming Units (CFU) per 25 cm2 , with 43.8% (70/160) of blood donors growing Gram-negative bacteria and 3.8% (6/159) Staphylococcus aureus (2/6 methicillin-resistant). Non-fermentative Gram-negative rods predominated (74/93 isolates, majority Pseudomonas spp., Acinetobacter spp.). Enterobacterales comprised 19/93 isolates (mostly Pantoea spp. and Enterobacter spp.), 5/19 were multidrug-resistant. In only two cases (1.9%, 2/108) the NBTC antisepsis procedure met the acceptance criterion of ≤2 CFU/25 cm2 . CONCLUSION: Skin bacterial counts and species among blood donors in DRC were similar to previously studied Caucasian populations, including cold-tolerating species and bacteria previously described in transfusion reactions. Prevention of contamination (e.g., antisepsis) needs further evaluation and customization to sSA.

Bacterial contamination of blood products in Africa.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial contamination of blood components (notably platelets) remains a leading infectious risk to the blood supply. There has been extensive research in high-income countries to characterize the risk of bacterial contamination along with adoption of strategies to mitigate that risk. By contrast, related data in Africa are lacking. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: An electronic survey was distributed to members of African Society of Blood Transfusion to assess existing or planned measures at African blood centers and hospitals to mitigate bacterial contamination of blood products. A literature review of studies pertaining to related transfusion-associated risk in Africa was conducted to complement the findings. RESULTS: Forty-five responses were received, representing 16 African countries. All respondents were urban, either in blood centers (n = 36) or hospital-based transfusion services (n = 9). Reported measures included skin disinfection (n = 41 [91.1%]); diversion pouches (n = 14 [31.1%]); bacterial culture (n = 9 [20%]); pathogen reduction (PR) (n = 3 [6.7%]); and point-of-release testing (PoRT) (n = 2 [4.4%]). Measures being considered for implementation included: skin disinfection (n = 2 [4.4%]); diversion pouches (n = 2 [4.4%]); bacterial culture n = 14 (31.1%); PR (n = 11 [24.4%]); and PoRT (n = 4 [8.9%]). Of the 38 respondents who reported collection of platelets, 14 (36.8%) and 8 (21.1%) reported using diversion pouches and bacterial culture, respectively. The literature review identified 36 studies on the epidemiology of bacterial contamination and septic transfusion reactions in Africa; rates of contamination ranged from 0% to 17.9%. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that prevention of bacterial contamination of blood components and transfusion-associated sepsis in Africa remains neglected. Regional preventive measures have not been widely adopted.

Knowledge, awareness, and risk practices related to bacterial contamination of antiseptics, disinfectants, and hand hygiene products among healthcare workers in sub-saharan Africa: a cross-sectional survey in three tertiary care hospitals (Benin, Burkina Faso, and DR Congo).

BACKGROUND: Antiseptics, disinfectants, and hand hygiene products can be contaminated with bacteria and cause healthcare-associated infections, which are underreported from low- and middle-income countries. To better understand the user-related risk factors, we conducted a knowledge, awareness, and practice survey among hospital staff in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: Self-administered questionnaire distributed among healthcare workers in three tertiary care hospitals (Burkina Faso, Benin, Democratic Republic of the Congo). RESULTS: 617 healthcare workers (85.3% (para)medical and 14.7% auxiliary staff) participated. Less than half (45.5%) had been trained in Infection Prevention & Control (IPC), and only 15.7% were trained < 1 year ago. Near two-thirds (64.2%) preferred liquid soap for hand hygiene, versus 33.1% for alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR). Most (58.3%) expressed confidence in the locally available products. Knowledge of product categories, storage conditions and shelf-life was inadequate: eosin was considered as an antiseptic (47.5% of (para)medical staff), the shelf life and storage conditions (non-transparent container) of freshly prepared chlorine 0.5% were known by only 42.6% and 34.8% of participants, respectively. Approximately one-third of participants approved using tap water for preparation of chlorine 0.5% and liquid soap. Most participants (> 80%) disapproved recycling soft-drink bottles as liquid soap containers. Nearly two-thirds (65.0%) declared that bacteria may be resistant to and survive in ABHR, versus 51.0% and 37.4% for povidone iodine and chlorine 0.5%, respectively. Depicted risk practices (n = 4) were ignored by 30 to 40% of participants: they included touching the rim or content of stock containers with compresses or small containers, storing of cotton balls soaked in an antiseptic, and hand-touching the spout of pump dispenser. Filling containers by topping-up was considered good practice by 18.3% of participants. Half (52.1%) of participants acknowledged indefinite reuse of containers. Besides small differences, the findings were similar across the study sites and professional groups. Among IPC-trained staff, proportions recognizing all 4 risk practices were higher compared to non-trained staff (35.9% versus 23.8%, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The present findings can guide tailored training and IPC implementation at the healthcare facility and national levels, and sensitize stakeholders' and funders' interest.

Growth of Gram-Negative Bacteria in Antiseptics, Disinfectants and Hand Hygiene Products in Two Tertiary Care Hospitals in West Africa-A Cross-Sectional Survey.

Antiseptics, disinfectants, and hand hygiene products can act as reservoirs of Gram-negative bacteria causing healthcare-associated infections. This problem is rarely documented in low- and middle-income countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. In a cross-sectional survey, we assessed the bacterial contamination of antiseptics, disinfectants, and hand hygiene products in two university hospitals in Burkina Faso and Benin. During ward visits and staff interviews, in-use products were cultured for the presence of Gram-negative bacteria. The growth of Gram-negative bacteria was absent or rare in alcohol-based products, povidone iodine, and Dakin solution. Contamination was highest (73.9% (51/69)) for liquid soap products (versus antiseptic/disinfectants (4.5%, 7/157) (p < 0.0001)), mostly used in high-risk areas and associated with high total bacterial counts (>10,000 colony-forming units/mL). Contaminating flora (105 isolates) included Enterobacterales and the Vibrio non-cholerae/Aeromonas group (17.1%) and non-fermentative Gram-negative rods (82.8%). Multidrug resistance was present among 9/16 Enterobacterales (Klebsiella and Enterobacter spp.) and 3/12 Acinetobacter spp., including carbapenem resistance (Acinetobacter baumannii: NDM, Pseudomonas stutzeri: VIM). The risk factors for contamination included the type of product (cleaning grade and in-house prepared liquid soap), use of recycled disposable containers and soft drink bottles, absence of labeling, topping-up of containers, dilution with tap water (pharmacy and ward), and poor-quality management (procurement, stock management, expiry dates, and period after opening).

Knowledge, attitude and practice survey of bacterial contamination of blood for transfusion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

BACKGROUND: We assessed healthcare worker's knowledge-attitude-practice regarding bacterial contamination of blood products in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In three hospitals and the National Blood Transfusion Centre (NBTC), two multiple-choice surveys were completed on a tablet computer: one each, for blood bank (31 questions) and for clinical ward staff (20 questions). A score was calculated for 11 overlapping knowledge questions. RESULTS: Among 247 participants (blood bank No.=62, ward No.=185), median (range) knowledge score was 10 (2-19) on a maximum of 20, with blood bank staff (12/20) scoring higher than clinical ward staff (9/20) (p<0.0001). Half (50.2%) of 247 participants recalled previous training in transfusion medicine. Participants had limited understanding of and compliance with NBTC-recommended preventive measures: incorrect assumption that wearing gloves prevents bacterial contamination (83.8%) and that blood banks test donor blood for bacteria (59.9%). Half (50.0%) of blood bank staff did not acknowledge the NBTC-recommended antisepsis procedure, 62.1% did not apply the appropriate number of antisepsis steps, and 32.3% saw no harm in touching the venipuncture site after antisepsis. Presence of bacteria on healthy skin (62.3%) and blood bank fomites (examination gloves: 30.8%, soap: 62.8%) was underestimated. Although 92.4% of clinical ward staff said to easily recognize transfusion reactions, only 15.7% recognized septic reactions and post-transfusion antibiotic treatment practices were not consistent. Challenges reported by blood bank staff and particular for low-resource settings were: frequent power cuts (98.4%), transport of blood products by patient attendants (41.1%), without cooling elements (64.4%), and reuse of finished antiseptic/disinfectant containers (75.4%). DISCUSSION: The present study points to gaps in knowledge, attitudes, practices along sampling, cold chain and transfusion which can feed customized training and monitoring.

Characterization of Typhoid Intestinal Perforation in Africa: Results From the Severe Typhoid Fever Surveillance in Africa Program.

Background: Typhoid intestinal perforation (TIP) remains the most serious complication of typhoid fever. In many countries, the diagnosis of TIP relies on intraoperative identification, as blood culture and pathology capacity remain limited. As a result, many cases of TIP may not be reported as typhoid. This study demonstrates the burden of TIP in sites in Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ethiopia, Ghana, Madagascar, and Nigeria. Methods: Patients with clinical suspicion of nontraumatic intestinal perforation were enrolled and demographic details, clinical findings, surgical records, blood cultures, tissue biopsies, and peritoneal fluid were collected. Participants were then classified as having confirmed TIP, probable TIP, possible TIP, or clinical intestinal perforation based on surgical descriptions and cultures. Results: A total of 608 participants were investigated for nontraumatic intestinal perforation; 214 (35%) participants had surgically-confirmed TIP and 33 participants (5%) had culture-confirmed typhoid. The overall proportion of blood or surgical site Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi positivity in surgically verified TIP cases was 10.3%. TIP was high in children aged 5-14 years in DRC, Ghana, and Nigeria. We provide evidence for correlation between monthly case counts of S. Typhi and the occurrence of intestinal perforation. Conclusions: Low S. Typhi culture positivity rates, as well as a lack of blood and tissue culture capability in many regions where typhoid remains endemic, significantly underestimate the true burden of typhoid fever. The occurrence of TIP may indicate underlying typhoid burden, particularly in countries with limited culture capability.

Bacterial contamination of blood products for transfusion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: temperature monitoring, qualitative and semi-quantitative culture.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial contamination of blood for transfusion is rarely investigated in low-income countries. We determined the contamination rate of blood products in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this prospective observational study, blood products in one rural and two urban hospitals (paediatric and general) contained a satellite sampling bag by which blood was sampled for culture in a blood culture bottle (4 mL) and on an agar-coated slide to estimate colony forming units (CFU/mL). Bacteria were identified with biochemical tests and MALDI-TOF (Bruker). Exposure time >10 °C was assessed on a subset of blood products. RESULTS: In total, 1.4% (41 of 2,959) of blood products were contaminated with 48 bacterial isolates. Skin (e.g., Staphylococcus spp.) and environmental (e.g., Bacillus spp.) bacteria predominated (97.8% of 45 isolates identified). Bacterial counts were ≤103 CFU/mL. Contamination rates for the urban paediatric, urban general and rural hospitals were 1.6%, 2.4% and 0.3%, respectively (p=0.004). None of the following variables was significantly associated with contamination: (i) donor type (voluntary 1.6%, family 1.2%, paid 3.9%); (ii) type of blood product (red cells 1.6%, whole blood 0.6%); (ii) season (dry season 2.4%, rainy season 1.8%); (iv) age of blood product (contaminated 8 days vs non-contaminated 6 days); and (v) exposure time >10 °C (median for contaminated and non-contaminated blood reached maximum test limit of 8 hours). DISCUSSION: A bacterial contamination rate of 1.4% of whole blood and red cells is similar to results from high-income countries. Implementation of feasible risk-mitigation measures is needed.

Non-typhoidal Salmonella intestinal carriage in a Schistosoma mansoni endemic community in a rural area of the Democratic Republic of Congo.

BACKGROUND: Clinical observations and animal studies have suggested that Salmonella intestinal carriage is promoted by concurrent Schistosoma infection. The present study assessed association of Salmonella intestinal carriage and Schistosoma mansoni infection among individuals in a Schistosoma endemic area in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: From November 2015 to March 2016, a cross-sectional community-wide study was conducted in Kifua II, a rural village in Kongo Central Province, Democratic Republic of Congo. Stool samples were collected and analyzed for Salmonella intestinal carriage (culture) and Schistosoma mansoni infection (Kato Katz microscopy with determination of egg load). Salmonella Typhimurium and Enteritidis isolates were assessed for genetic similarity with blood culture isolates obtained during the same period in a neighboring hospital using multi-locus variable-numbers tandem repeat analysis (MLVA). RESULTS: A total of 1,108 participants were included (median age 15 years (IQR: 7-36), male-to-female ratio of 1:1.1). The overall prevalence of Schistosoma mansoni infection and non-typhoidal Salmonella carriage was 51.2% (95% CI: 48.2-54.1) and 3.4% (95% CI: 2.5-4.7) respectively, with 2.2% (95% CI: 1.5-3.2) of participants coinfected. The proportion of Salmonella carriage tended to be higher among Schistosoma mansoni infected participants compared to non-infected participants but this difference did not reach statistical significance (4.2% versus 2.6%, p = 0.132). However, the proportion of Salmonella carriage among participants with a heavy Schistosoma mansoni infection was significantly higher compared to those with a light and moderate infection (8.7% versus 3.2%, p = 0.012) and compared to Schistosoma mansoni negatives (8.7% versus 2.6%, p = 0.002). The 38 Salmonella isolates comprised five and four Enteritidis and Typhimurium serotypes respectively, the majority of them had MLVA types identical or similar to those observed among blood culture isolates. CONCLUSION: Salmonella intestinal carriage was associated with a heavy intensity of Schistosoma mansoni infection. Further studies are needed to address causation.

16S metagenomics for diagnosis of bloodstream infections: opportunities and pitfalls.

INTRODUCTION: Bacterial bloodstream infections (BSI) form a large public health threat worldwide. Current routine diagnosis is based on blood culture (BC) but this technique suffers from limited sensitivity. Molecular diagnostic tools have been developed for identification of bacteria in the blood of BSI patients. 16S metagenomics is an open-ended technique that can detect simultaneously all bacteria in a given sample based on PCR amplification of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) followed by sequencing of the PCR amplicons and taxonomic labeling of the sequence reads at genus or species level. Areas covered: Here we review the studies that have used 16S metagenomics for the identification of bacteria in human blood samples. We also discuss the potential added value of 16S metagenomics in the diagnosis of BSI, challenges as well as future directions for implementation in clinical settings. Expert commentary: 16S metagenomics has the potential to complement conventional BC; however, the technique currently suffers from several technical limitations jeopardizing implementation in routine clinical microbiology laboratories. Further studies are required to assess the cost-efficiency and clinical impact of 16S metagenomics in comparison to BC which remains the gold standard diagnostic method for BSI.