Third stage of labor: evidence-based practice for prevention of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes.

The third stage of labor is defined as the time period between delivery of the fetus through delivery of the placenta. During a normal third stage, uterine contractions lead to separation and expulsion of the placenta from the uterus. Postpartum hemorrhage is a relatively common complication of the third stage of labor. Strategies have been studied to mitigate the risk of postpartum hemorrhage, leading to the widespread implementation of active management of the third stage of labor. Initially, active management of the third stage of labor consisted of a bundle of interventions including administration of a uterotonic agent, early cord clamping, controlled cord traction, and external uterine massage. However, the effectiveness of these interventions as a bundle has been questioned, leading to abandonment of some components in recent years. Despite this, upon review of selected international guidelines, we found that the term "active management of the third stage of labor" was still used, but recommendations for and against individual interventions were variable and not necessarily supported by current evidence. In this review, we: (1) examine the physiology of the third stage of labor, (2) present evidence related to interventions that prevent postpartum hemorrhage and promote maternal and neonatal health, (3) review current global guidelines and recommendations for practice, and (4) propose future areas of investigation. The interventions in this review include pharmacologic agents to prevent postpartum hemorrhage, cord clamping, cord milking, cord traction, cord drainage, early skin-to-skin contact, and nipple stimulation. Treatment of complications of the third stage of labor is outside of the scope of this review. We conclude that current evidence supports the use of effective pharmacologic postpartum hemorrhage prophylaxis, delayed cord clamping, early skin-to-skin contact, and controlled cord traction at delivery when feasible. The most effective uterotonic regimens for preventing postpartum hemorrhage after vaginal delivery include oxytocin plus ergometrine; oxytocin plus misoprostol; or carbetocin. After cesarean delivery, carbetocin or oxytocin as a bolus are the most effective regimens. There is inconsistent evidence regarding the use of tranexamic acid in addition to a uterotonic compared with a uterotonic alone for postpartum hemorrhage prevention after all deliveries. Because of differences in patient comorbidities, costs, and availability of resources and staff, decisions to use specific prevention strategies are dependent on patient- and system-level factors. We recommend that the term "active management of the third stage of labor" as a combined intervention no longer be used. Instead, we recommend that "third stage care" be adopted, which promotes the implementation of evidence-based interventions that incorporate practices that are safe and beneficial for both the woman and neonate.

Considering Criteria for Active Phase Labor Management of Nulliparous Women: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study is to evaluate differences in maternal and neonatal outcomes based on updated criteria for defining active labor at 6 cm of cervical dilation and to determine if these recommendations are cost-effective. STUDY DESIGN: A decision-analytic model was built using TreeAge Pro 2020 software. We included maternal outcomes of mode of delivery, endometritis, postpartum hemorrhage requiring transfusion, and death. Neonatal outcomes included rates of shoulder dystocia and permanent brachial plexus injury. Costs and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were included from the maternal and infant perspectives. We used a willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000 per QALY and all model inputs were subjected to sensitivity analysis. RESULTS: In a theoretical cohort of 1.4 million women, a threshold of 6 cm to define active labor resulted in 373,668 fewer cesarean deliveries, 33,181 fewer cases of endometritis, 143 fewer postpartum hemorrhages requiring transfusions, and seven fewer maternal deaths when compared with a threshold of 4 cm. However, there were higher rates of adverse neonatal outcomes, including 484 more cases of shoulder dystocia and 17 more instances of permanent brachial plexus injury. Using 6 cm as the threshold resulted in lower costs and greater effectiveness, making it a dominant strategy. Multivariate sensitivity analysis demonstrated the model was robust over a wide range of assumptions. CONCLUSION: In this model, considering 6 cm of cervical dilation as the threshold for the active phase of labor compared with 4 cm was a cost-effective strategy to prevent primary cesarean deliveries, lower costs, and improve maternal outcomes, despite associated increased adverse neonatal outcomes. KEY POINTSG: · Cervical dilation of 6 cm should be considered the threshold for the active phase of labor. This is a change from the prior definition of 4 cm.. · We built a theoretical model to compare outcomes and costs associated with the new active phase definition of 6 cm.. · Using a 6-cm threshold is a cost-effective strategy for decreasing primary cesarean deliveries..

Outcomes among Nulliparous Women Undergoing Nonmedically Indicated Induction of Labor at 39 Weeks Compared with Expectant Management Differ by Maternal Age.

OBJECTIVE: Prior studies have demonstrated the potential benefit of nonmedically indicated induction of labor for nulliparous women at 39 weeks of gestation, yet few have studied the impact of this management strategy in different maternal age groups on obstetric outcomes. We sought to assess whether obstetric outcomes among women undergoing nonmedically indicated induction of labor at 39 weeks of gestation as compared with expectant management vary based on maternal age. STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective cohort study of singleton, nonanomalous, deliveries between 2007 and 2012 in California. We defined nonmedically indicated induction of labor as induction of labor without a specific medical indication, and women with planned cesarean sections were excluded. We compared induction of labor with expectant management beyond the gestational age of induction and examined this comparison in different maternal age groups. Numerous maternal and neonatal outcomes were examined. Chi-squared and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used for statistical comparisons and a p-value of less than 0.05 was used to indicate statistical significance. RESULTS: A total of 630,485 women-infant dyads met our inclusion criteria and were included in this study. At 39 weeks' gestation, 6% of women underwent nonmedically indicated induction of labor and 94% underwent expectant management. Women 20 to 34 and ≥35 years old had lower odds of cesarean delivery if they underwent induction of labor. Women of all ages undergoing nonmedically indicated induction of labor had higher odds of operative vaginal delivery. Neonatal outcomes were better with nonmedically indicated induction of labor, including lower odds of neonatal intensive care unit admission and neonatal respiratory distress. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated that obstetric outcomes vary among women undergoing nonmedically indicated induction of labor compared with expectant management when stratified by maternal age. These findings illustrate the importance of understanding age-related differences in outcomes associated with nonmedically indicated induction of labor. KEY POINTS: · Outcomes are different by age with nonmedically indicated induction of labor (IOL).. · The odds of cesarean delivery with IOL decreases with increasing maternal age compared with expectant management.. · Neonatal outcomes were improved with IOL compared with expectant management..

Does obesity influence the preferred treatment approach for early-stage cervical cancer? A cost-effectiveness analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Abdominal radical hysterectomy in early-stage cervical cancer has higher rates of disease-free and overall survival compared with minimally invasive radical hysterectomy. Abdominal radical hysterectomy may be technically challenging at higher body mass index levels resulting in poorer surgical outcomes. This study sought to examine the influence of body mass index on outcomes and cost effectiveness between different treatments for early-stage cervical cancer. METHODS: A Markov decision-analytic model was designed using TreeAge Pro software to compare the outcomes and costs of primary chemoradiation versus surgery in women with early-stage cervical cancer. The study used a theoretical cohort of 6000 women who were treated with abdominal radical hysterectomy, minimally invasive radical hysterectomy, or primary chemoradiation therapy. We compared the results for three body mass index groups: less than 30 kg/m2, 30-39.9 kg/m2, and 40 kg/m2 or higher. Model inputs were derived from the literature. Outcomes included complications, recurrence, death, costs, and quality-adjusted life years. An incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of less than $100 000 per quality-adjusted life year was used as our willingness-to-pay threshold. Sensitivity analyses were performed broadly to determine the robustness of the results. RESULTS: Comparing abdominal radical hysterectomy with minimally invasive radical hysterectomy, abdominal radical hysterectomy was associated with 526 fewer recurrences and 382 fewer deaths compared with minimally invasive radical hysterectomy; however, abdominal radical hysterectomy resulted in more complications for each body mass index category. When the body mass index was 40 kg/m2 or higher, abdominal radical hysterectomy became the dominant strategy because it led to better outcomes with lower costs than minimally invasive radical hysterectomy. Comparing abdominal radical hysterectomy with primary chemoradiation therapy, recurrence rates were similar, with more deaths associated with surgery across each body mass index category. Chemoradiation therapy became cost effective when the body mass index was 40 kg/m2 or higher. CONCLUSION: When the body mass index is 40 kg/m2 or higher, abdominal radical hysterectomy is cost saving compared with minimally invasive radical hysterectomy and primary chemoradiation is cost effective compared with abdominal radical hysterectomy. Primary chemoradiation may be the optimal management strategy at higher body mass indexes.

Women's perspectives on receiving and expanding access to essential health services in pharmacies in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Expanding reproductive health services in community pharmacies is a promising strategy for reaching underserved communities. Limited information exists on women's attitudes to receive these services and if interest may differ in urban and rural locations. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether there were differences by rural location in women's perspectives and willingness to receive essential preventative and diagnostic reproductive health services in community pharmacies. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional national survey of women in November 2020. The survey consisted of demographic data, women's experiences receiving essential preventative health services, and questions regarding perspectives on and interest in receiving these services in community pharmacies. Descriptive statistics assessed differences in survey responses between rural and urban communities. RESULTS: Our sample size consisted of 867 women. We received 544 responses for a response rate of 62.7%. Rural women were as likely as their urban counterparts to delay receiving preventative care owing to concerns about insurance or how they would pay for services (P = 0.45). Rural women were less likely than urban women to have received the human papillomavirus vaccine (P = 0.02) or have had regular cervical cancer screenings (P = 0.04). Overall, both rural and urban women want to receive preventative reproductive health services in community pharmacies. CONCLUSION: Expanded access to reproductive health services in community pharmacies has the potential to improve access and health screening, particularly in underserved rural areas.

What is the Cost-Effective Treatment for Melanoma Patients with a Positive Sentinel Node?

BACKGROUND: Survival for positive sentinel lymph node (SLN) patients does not differ between completion lymph node dissection (CLND) and nodal observation (OBS). However, treating these patients with CLND and checkpoint inhibitors, such as pembrolizumab (PEM), improves outcomes. This study evaluated the cost-effectiveness of OBS, CLND, and CLND with PEM (CLND-PEM) treatments. METHODS: A Markov model was designed to simulate treatment for a theoretical cohort of 1000 positive SLN patients per therapy with a 5-year follow-up period. An intervention was cost-effective if its incremental cost-effectiveness ratio among therapies was below the willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000 per quality-adjusted life year (QALY). RESULTS: Compared with CLND or CLND-PEM, OBS resulted in fewer lymphedema cases but in more disease recurrences. Compared with OBS, CLND had higher costs and lower QALYs. Although CLND-PEM had a lower number of recurrences and deaths than OBS or CLND, it had higher costs and lower QALYs than OBS, and thus was not cost-effective. However, with the effects of CLND from CLND-PEM removed, allowing evaluation of PEM effects alone (PEM alone), the resulting QALYs were the highest, but PEM alone still was not cost-effective compared with OBS ($1.2 million per QALY). By reducing the drug cost to less than $14,404 per patient, PEM alone would become cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with CLND, CLND-PEM, and PEM alone, OBS was cost-effective for managing positive SLN patients. Although CLND-PEM and PEM alone result in fewer recurrences and deaths, these therapies were not cost-effective due to the quality-of-life decrement of CLND and the current high drug cost of PEM.

Trastuzumab with carboplatin/paclitaxel for treatment of advanced stage and recurrent uterine papillary serous carcinoma: A cost-effectiveness analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Uterine papillary serous carcinoma (UPSC) is a variant of endometrial cancer that is aggressive and associated with poor outcomes. We sought to evaluate the cost effectiveness of carboplatin/paclitaxel alone versus carboplatin/paclitaxel with trastuzumab among patients with Her2/neu-positive advanced or recurrent UPSC. METHODS: We designed a Markov model in TreeAge Pro 2019 software to simulate management of a theoretical cohort of 4000 patients with Her2/neu-positive advanced or recurrent uterine papillary serous carcinoma (UPSC) followed for four years. In the carboplatin/paclitaxel with trastuzumab strategy, we included the cost of testing for Her2/neu status. We obtained all model inputs from the literature and a societal perspective was assumed. Outcomes included progression-free survival, progression, UPSC-specific mortality, cost, and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs). The intervention was considered cost effective if the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was below the willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000 per QALY. Sensitivity analyses were used to determine the robustness of the results. RESULTS: In our theoretical cohort of 4000 women, treatment with the addition of trastuzumab resulted in 637 fewer deaths and 627 fewer cases of progression compared with treatment with carboplatin/paclitaxel alone. Treatment with trastuzumab was associated with an additional cost of $144,335,895, but was associated with an increase of 2065 QALYs. The ICER was $69,903 per QALY, which was below our willingness-to-pay threshold. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that this treatment strategy was cost-effective until the cost of 6 months of treatment surpassed $38,505 (baseline input: $27,562). CONCLUSION: We found that the addition of trastuzumab to carboplatin/paclitaxel was a cost-effective treatment strategy for patients with advanced/recurrent Her2/neu-positive UPSC.

Medical abortion offered in pharmacy versus clinic-based settings.

BACKGROUND: Medical abortion is usually offered in a clinic or hospital, but could potentially be offered in other settings such as pharmacies. In many countries, pharmacies are a common first point of access for women seeking reproductive health information and services. Offering medical abortion through pharmacies is a potential strategy to improve access to abortion. OBJECTIVES: To compare the effectiveness and safety of medical abortion offered in pharmacy settings with clinic-based medical abortion. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, four other databases, two trials registries and grey literature websites in November 2020. We also handsearched key references and contacted authors to locate unpublished studies or studies not identified in the database searches. SELECTION CRITERIA: We identified studies that compared women receiving the same regimen of medical abortion or post-abortion care in either a clinic or pharmacy setting. Studies published in any language employing the following designs were included: randomized trials and non-randomized studies including a comparative group. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently reviewed both retrieved abstracts and full-text publications. A third author was consulted in case of disagreement. We intended to use the Cochrane risk of bias tool, RoB 2, for randomized studies and used the ROBINS-I tool (Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies of Interventions) to assess risk of bias in non-randomized studies. GRADE methodology was used to assess the certainty of the evidence. The primary outcomes were completion of abortion without additional intervention, need for blood transfusion, and presence of uterine or systemic infection within 30 days of medical abortion. MAIN RESULTS: Our search yielded 2030 records. We assessed a total of 89 full-text articles for eligibility. One prospective cohort study met our inclusion criteria. The included study collected data on outcomes from 605 women who obtained a medical abortion in Nepal from either a clinic or pharmacy setting. Both sites of care were staffed by the same auxiliary nurse midwives. Over all domains, the risk of bias was judged to be low for our primary outcome. During the pre-intervention period, the study's investigators identified a priori appropriate confounders, which were clearly measured and adjusted for in the final analysis. For women who received medical abortion in a pharmacy setting, compared to a clinic setting, there may be little or no difference in complete abortion rates (adjusted risk difference (RD)) 1.5, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.8 to 3.8; 1 study, 600 participants; low certainty evidence). The study reported no cases of blood transfusion, and a composite outcome, comprised mainly of infection complications, showed there may be little or no difference between settings (adjusted RD 0.8, 95% CI -1.0 to 2.8; 1 study, 600 participants; very low certainty evidence). The study reported no events for hospital admission for an abortion-related event or need for surgical intervention, and there may be no difference in women reporting being highly satisfied with the facility where they were seen (38% pharmacy versus 34% clinic, P = 0.87; 1 study, 600 participants; low certainty evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Conclusions about the effectiveness and safety of pharmacy provision of medical abortion are limited by the lack of comparative studies. One study, judged to provide low certainty evidence, suggests that the effectiveness of medical abortion may not be different between the pharmacy and clinic settings. However, evidence for safety is insufficient to draw any conclusions, and more research on factors contributing to potential differences in quality of care is needed. It is important to note that this study included a care model where a clinician provided services in a pharmacy, not direct provision of care by pharmacists or pharmacy staff. Three ongoing studies are potentially eligible for inclusion in review updates. More research is needed because pharmacy provision could expand timely access to medical abortion, especially in settings where clinic services may be more difficult to obtain. Evidence is particularly limited on the patient experience and how the care process and quality of services may differ across different types of settings.

Pharmacists' perspectives and experience prescribing hormonal contraception in rural and urban New Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Pharmacist prescription of contraception is becoming increasingly common in the United States (US). Limited information exists on whether this is improving access to contraception in underserved areas, including rural America. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether there were differences by rural location in pharmacists' willingness to prescribe hormonal contraception and perceived barriers to doing so. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of pharmacists eligible to prescribe hormonal contraception in New Mexico in March and May 2020. The survey consisted of demographic data, pharmacists' experience prescribing hormonal contraception, and questions regarding perceived barriers to pharmacist-prescribed hormonal contraception. Descriptive statistics assessed differences in survey responses between rural and urban pharmacists. We used multivariable logistic regression to estimate the association between rural practice and prescribing hormonal contraception. RESULTS: Our sampling frame consisted of 822 licensed pharmacists. We received 256 responses, for a response rate of 31.1%. We found that rural pharmacists were as likely as their urban counterparts to prescribe hormonal contraception (adjusted odds ratio 1.22 [95% CI 0.56-2.68], P = 0.50). Five main barriers included a need for additional training, reimbursement for services, liability concerns, corporate policies, and shortage of staff. No difference in barriers were identified by rural location or staff role. CONCLUSION: Pharmacy access has the potential to improve access to contraception across New Mexico, including underserved rural areas.

Isolated echogenic intracardiac foci and the role of cell-free fetal DNA: A cost-effectiveness analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Cell-free fetal DNA (cfDNA) has been increasingly incorporated into prenatal aneuploidy screening paradigms given its relatively high sensitivity for Down syndrome (DS). This is often the case when fetal ultrasonographic soft markers are present, such as the relatively common echogenic intracardiac focus (EIF). We sought to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of a screening strategy that included cfDNA screening when an isolated EIF is identified in a low-risk population with prior aneuploidy screening. METHODS: A decision-analytic model was constructed using TreeAge software with probabilities derived from the literature. Our model compared cfDNA screening following isolated EIF detection in women less than 35 years with prior reassuring first trimester screen compared to a strategy of no further aneuploidy screening. Strategies were compared to generate an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio with a threshold of $100 000/quality-adjusted life year (QALY) and applied to a theoretical cohort. RESULTS: The cfDNA strategy resulted in 21 fewer DS births and 52 additional QALYs, however, increased costs by $51.3 million. This yielded an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $986 503; therefore, it was not a cost-effective strategy. CONCLUSION: In a low-risk population with prior reassuring aneuploidy screening, it is not cost effective to offer cfDNA after identification of an isolated EIF.

Cost-Effectiveness of Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators in Children with Cardiac Conditions Associated with Risk for Sudden Cardiac Death.

Children at high risk for sudden cardiac death (SCD) receive implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) for prevention, but the cost effectiveness of ICDs in children at intermediate risk is unclear. Our objective was to create a cost-effectiveness model to compare costs and outcomes in children at risk of SCD, with and without ICD. Utilizing hypertrophic cardiomyopathy as the proxy disease, a theoretical cohort of 8150 children was followed for 69 years. Model inputs were derived from the literature, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000/quality-adjusted life year (QALY) used to delineate cost effectiveness. Outcomes included prevalence of severe neurological morbidity (SNM), SCD, cost, and QALYs. In children at intermediate risk of SCD (4-6% over 5 years), ICD resulted in 56 fewer cases of SNM, 2686 fewer deaths. In children at high risk (> 6% over 5 years), ICD placement resulted in 74 fewer cases of SNM and 3663 fewer deaths from cardiac causes. The costs of ICD were higher, but placement was cost effective with an ICER of $3009 per QALY in intermediate risk children, but ICD therapy was a dominant strategy in high-risk children. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated ICD placement was cost-effective until the annual probability of SCD was < 0.22%. The model was robust over a wide range of values. For children at risk of SCD, prophylactic ICD implantation is cost effective, resulting in improved outcomes and increased QALYs, despite increased costs. These findings highlight the economic benefits of ICD utilization in this population.

Antenatal Corticosteroids for Pregnant Women at High Risk of Preterm Delivery with COVID-19 Infection: A Decision Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Antenatal corticosteroids given prior to preterm deliveries reduce the risk of adverse neonatal outcomes. However, steroid administration in the setting of a viral respiratory infection can worsen maternal outcomes. Therefore, the decision to administer corticosteroids must balance the neonatal benefits with the potential harm to the mother if she is infected with the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). This study aimed to determine the gestational ages for which administering antenatal corticosteroids to women at high risk of preterm labor with concurrent COVID-19 infection results in improved combined maternal and infant outcomes. STUDY DESIGN: A decision-analytic model using TreeAge (2020) software was constructed for a theoretical cohort of hospitalized women with COVID-19 in the United States. All model inputs were derived from the literature. Outcomes included maternal intensive care unit (ICU) admission and death, along with infant outcomes of death, respiratory distress syndrome, intraventricular hemorrhage, and neurodevelopmental delay. Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were assessed from the maternal and infant perspectives. Sensitivity analyses were performed to determine if the results were robust over a range of assumptions. RESULTS: In our theoretical cohort of 10,000 women delivering between 24 and 33 weeks of gestation with COVID-19, corticosteroid administration resulted in 2,200 women admitted to the ICU and 110 maternal deaths. No antenatal corticosteroid use resulted in 1,500 ICU admissions and 75 maternal deaths. Overall, we found that corticosteroid administration resulted in higher combined QALYs up to 31 weeks of gestation in all hospitalized patients, and up to 29 weeks of gestation in ICU patients. CONCLUSION: Administration of antenatal corticosteroids at less than 32 weeks of gestation for hospitalized patients and less than 30 weeks of gestation for patients admitted to the ICU resulted in higher combined maternal and infant outcomes compared with expectant management for women at high risk of preterm birth with COVID-19 infection. These results can guide clinicians in their counseling and management of these pregnant women. KEY POINTS: · Antenatal steroids reduce adverse neonatal outcomes.. · Steroids worsen maternal outcomes in COVID-19.. · Steroids given < 32 weeks result in improved outcomes..

Induction of labor at 39 weeks of gestation versus expectant management for low-risk nulliparous women: a cost-effectiveness analysis.

BACKGROUND: A large, recent multicenter trial found that induction of labor at 39 weeks for low-risk nulliparous women was not associated with an increased risk of cesarean delivery or adverse neonatal outcomes. OBJECTIVE: We sought to examine the cost-effectiveness and outcomes associated with induction of labor at 39 weeks vs expectant management for low-risk nulliparous women in the United States. STUDY DESIGN: A cost-effectiveness model using TreeAge software was designed to compare outcomes in women who were induced at 39 weeks vs expectantly managed. We used a theoretical cohort of 1.6 million women, the approximate number of nulliparous term births in the United States annually that are considered low risk. Outcomes included mode of delivery, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, macrosomia, stillbirth, permanent brachial plexus injury, and neonatal death, in addition to cost and quality-adjusted life years for both the woman and neonate. Model inputs were derived from the literature, and a cost-effectiveness threshold was set at $100,000/quality-adjusted life years. RESULTS: In our theoretical cohort of 1.6 million women, induction of labor resulted in 54,498 fewer cesarean deliveries and 79,152 fewer cases of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. We also found that induction of labor resulted in 795 fewer cases of stillbirth and 11 fewer neonatal deaths, despite 86 additional cases of brachial plexus injury. Induction of labor resulted in increased costs but increased quality-adjusted life years with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $87,691.91 per quality-adjusted life year. In sensitivity analysis, if the cost of induction of labor was increased by $180, elective induction would no longer be cost effective. Similarly, we found that if the rate of cesarean delivery was the same in both strategies, elective induction of labor at 39 weeks would not be a cost-effective strategy. In probabilistic sensitivity analysis via Monte Carlo simulation, we found that induction of labor was cost effective only 65% of the time. CONCLUSION: In our theoretical cohort, induction of labor in nulliparous term women at 39 weeks of gestation resulted in improved outcomes but increased costs. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was marginally cost effective but would lead to an additional 2 billion dollars of healthcare costs. Whether individual clinicians and healthcare systems offer routine induction of labor at 39 weeks will need to depend on local capacity, careful evaluation and allocation of healthcare resources, and patient preferences. KEY WORDS: cesarean delivery, decision analysis, healthcare resources, induction of labor, low-risk nulliparous women, mode of delivery, obstetric outcomes.

Expanding comprehensive pregnancy care for Emergency Medicaid recipients: a cost-effectiveness analysis.

BACKGROUND: Emergency Medicaid is a restricted benefits program for individuals who have low-income status and who are immigrants. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to compare the cost-effectiveness of 2 strategies of pregnancy coverage for Emergency Medicaid recipients: the federal minimum of covering the delivery only vs extended coverage to 60 days after delivery. STUDY DESIGN: A decision analytical Markov model was developed to evaluate the outcomes and costs of these policies, and the results in a theoretical cohort of 100,000 postpartum Emergency Medicaid recipients were considered. The payor perspective was adopted. Health outcomes and cost-effectiveness over a 1- and 3-year time horizon were investigated. All probabilities, utilities, and costs were obtained from the literature. Our primary outcome was the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of the competing strategies. RESULTS: Extending Emergency Medicaid to 60 days after delivery was determined to be a cost-saving strategy. Providing postpartum and contraceptive care resulted in 33,900 additional people receiving effective contraception in the first year and prevented 7290 additional unintended pregnancies. Over 1 year, it resulted in a gain of 1566 quality-adjusted life year at a cost of $10,903 per quality-adjusted life year. By 3 years of policy change, greater improvements were observed in all outcomes, and the expansion of Emergency Medicaid became cost saving and the dominant strategy. CONCLUSION: The inclusion of postpartum care and contraception for immigrant women who have low-income status resulted in lower costs and improved health outcomes.

Treating Mild Chronic Hypertension During Pregnancy: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the cost effectiveness of targeting a blood pressure of less than 140/90 mm Hg compared with 160/105 mm Hg. METHODS: A decision-analytic model was constructed to compare the treatment of chronic hypertension in pregnancy at mild-range blood pressures (140/90 mm Hg) with the treatment of chronic hypertension before 20 weeks of gestation at severe-range blood pressures (160/105 mm Hg) in a theoretical cohort of 180,000 patients with mild chronic hypertension. Probabilities, costs, and utilities were derived from literature and varied in sensitivity analyses. Primary outcomes included incremental cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY), cases of preeclampsia, preeclampsia with severe features, severe maternal morbidity (SMM), preterm birth, maternal death, neonatal death, and neurodevelopmental delay. The cost-effectiveness threshold was $100,000 per QALY. RESULTS: Treating chronic hypertension in a population of 180,000 pregnant persons at mild-range blood pressures, compared with severe-range blood pressures, resulted in 14,177 fewer cases of preeclampsia (43,953 vs 58,130), 11,835 of which were cases of preeclampsia with severe features (40,530 vs 52,365). This led to 817 fewer cases of SMM (4,375 vs 5,192), and 18 fewer cases of maternal death (102 vs 120). Treating at a lower threshold also resulted in 8,078 fewer cases of preterm birth (22,000 vs 30,078), which led to 26 fewer neonatal deaths (276 vs 302) and 157 fewer cases of neurodevelopmental delay (661 vs 818). Overall, treating chronic hypertension at a lower threshold was a dominant strategy that resulted in decreased costs of $600 million and increased effectiveness of 12,852 QALYs. CONCLUSION: Treating chronic hypertension at a threshold of mild-range blood pressures is a dominant (lower costs, better outcomes) and cost-effective strategy that results in fewer neonatal and maternal deaths compared with the standard treatment of treating at severe range blood pressures.

Association of perinatal outcomes among pregnant patients with gestational diabetes receiving benefits from the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.

BACKGROUND: Treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus has been demonstrated to improve perinatal outcomes. However, the role of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children in maternal and neonatal outcomes for qualifying patients with gestational diabetes mellitus is less understood. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to observe the relationship of enrollment in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children with pregnancy outcomes in patients with gestational diabetes. STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective cohort study using National Vital Statistics Birth Data of pregnant persons diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus between 2014 and 2018. The study population was composed of patients who had Medicaid coverage for maternity care; patients with Medicaid are automatically qualified for the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children. The study groups were defined as those who enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children vs those who did not enroll. In addition, maternal and neonatal outcomes for these groups were analyzed. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses adjusted for significant covariates were performed. RESULTS: Of 460,377 pregnant persons with pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes mellitus, 73% were enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, and 27% were not. Pregnant persons with gestational diabetes mellitus enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children had decreased odds of preterm delivery before 34 and 37 weeks of gestation. Although the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children group had higher odds of large-for-gestational-age neonates and cesarean delivery, the overall rates of these outcomes in both cohorts were high. CONCLUSION: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children provides a resource for perinatal support, supplemental food, and nutritional education. The decrease in the rates of preterm deliveries in pregnant persons with gestational diabetes mellitus that enroll in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, Infants, and Children relative to those that qualified for the program but did not enroll suggested that having access to available education and food sources may influence perinatal outcomes.

Analysis of Obstetric Outcomes by Hospital Location, Volume, and Teaching Status Associated With Non-Medically Indicated Induction of Labor at 39 Weeks.

Importance: Non-medically indicated induction of labor has been demonstrated to potentially improve some obstetric outcomes, such as decreasing cesarean birth. It has been reported that rates of cesarean birth and other obstetric outcomes vary among hospitals with different characteristics. Objective: To assess whether obstetric outcomes differ between nulliparous individuals with low-risk pregnancies managed with non-medically indicated induction of labor compared with expectant management in different types of hospitals. Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cohort study included non-medically indicated induction of labor at 39 weeks' gestation compared with expectant management of singleton, nonanomalous, births in nulliparous women with low-risk pregnancies in California between January 1, 2007, and December 31, 2011. The initial analysis of these data was performed in 2021. Outcomes were assessed by 3 hospital characteristics: location (urban vs rural), obstetric volume, and teaching (academic vs community) status. Volume was categorized based on the average number of births per year and grouped into low (<1200 births per year), medium (1200-2399 births per year), and high (≥2400 births per year). Births with previous or planned cesarean delivery were excluded, and non-medically indicated induction of labor was defined as induction of labor without a specific medical indication. Testing with χ2 and multivariable logistic regression analyses was used for statistical comparisons with a cutoff level of P = .01. Exposure: Non-medically indicated induction of labor at 39 weeks' gestation. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was cesarean birth, and numerous secondary perinatal outcomes were also assessed. Results: There were 455 044 births included in this study. When stratified by hospital variables, a number of sociodemographic characteristics were significantly different, such as race and ethnicity, age, body mass index, and insurance type. The adjusted odds ratios (aORs) of cesarean birth were significantly lower in all settings with induction of labor except for low-volume hospitals, in which there was no significant difference (aOR, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.82-1.09). Chorioamnionitis and postpartum hemorrhage were lower with induction of labor among nearly every hospital when stratified by hospital characteristics. Neonatal outcomes were improved in all settings with induction of labor compared with expectant management. Conclusions and Relevance: These findings suggest that non-medically indicated induction of labor may be associated with a lower rate of cesarean births and some maternal and neonatal adverse outcomes in a range of hospital settings.

Universal Tetanus-Diphtheria-Pertussis Vaccination During Pregnancy: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the cost effectiveness of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccination in pregnant patients in the United States. METHODS: A decision-analytic model in TreeAge was developed to compare universal Tdap vaccination in pregnancy with no Tdap vaccination in pregnancy using a theoretical cohort of 3.66 million pregnant individuals, the approximate number of deliveries per year in the United States. Outcomes included infant pertussis infections, infant hospitalizations, infant encephalopathy cases, infant deaths, and maternal pertussis infections. All probabilities and costs were derived from the literature. Utilities were applied to discounted life expectancies at a rate of 3% to generate quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). A strategy was considered cost effective if it had an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of less than $100,000 per QALY. Univariable and multivariable sensitivity analyses were performed to assess the robustness of the model to changes in the baseline assumptions. RESULTS: With a baseline assumption of vaccine cost at $47.75, Tdap vaccination was cost effective at $7,601 per QALY. The vaccination strategy was associated with a decrease of 22 infant deaths, 11 infant encephalopathy cases, 2,018 infant hospitalizations, 6,164 infant pertussis infections, and 8,585 maternal pertussis infections, with an increase of 19,489 QALYs. In sensitivity analyses, the strategy was cost effective until the incidence of maternal pertussis became lower than 1.6 cases per 10,000 individuals, the cost of the Tdap vaccine was greater than $540, or previous pertussis immunity was present in more than 92.1% of pregnant individuals. CONCLUSION: In a theoretical U.S. cohort of 3.66 million pregnant individuals, Tdap vaccination during pregnancy is cost effective and reduces infant morbidity and mortality compared with no vaccination during pregnancy. These findings are especially relevant given that approximately half of individuals are not vaccinated during pregnancy and recent data have shown that postpartum maternal vaccination and cocooning strategies are ineffective. Public health strategies to encourage greater uptake of Tdap vaccination should be used to reduce the morbidity and mortality of pertussis infection.

Cost effectiveness of buprenorphine vs. methadone for pregnant people with opioid use disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the cost effectiveness of buprenorphine versus methadone in the management of opioid use disorder (OUD) during pregnancy. METHODS: We designed a decision-analytic model to evaluate the costs and outcomes associated with buprenorphine compared to methadone for pregnant people with OUD. We used a theoretical cohort of 22,400 pregnant people, which is an estimation of pregnancies affected by OUD per year in the United States. Outcomes included maternal retention in maintenance treatment, neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome, preterm birth, fetal growth restriction, cerebral palsy, and maternal overdose in addition to cost and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). We used a willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000/QALY. All model inputs were derived from the literature and varied in sensitivity analyses to assess the robustness of our baseline inputs. RESULTS: In our theoretical cohort, treatment of OUD with buprenorphine during pregnancy resulted in 2413 fewer cases of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome, 1089 fewer preterm births, 299 fewer cases of fetal growth restriction, 32 fewer stillbirths, and 13 fewer cases of cerebral palsy compared to methadone treatment. Despite lower rates of retention, buprenorphine treatment saved nearly 123 million healthcare dollars and resulted in 558 additional QALYs, making it the dominant strategy compared to methadone treatment. Our findings were robust over a wide range of assumptions. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that buprenorphine should be considered a cost effective treatment option for OUD in pregnancy, as it is associated with improved neonatal outcomes compared to methadone despite the risk of treatment discontinuation.