Pthlha and mechanical force control early patterning of growth zones in the zebrafish craniofacial skeleton.

Secreted signals in patterning systems often induce repressive signals that shape their distributions in space and time. In developing growth plates (GPs) of endochondral long bones, Parathyroid hormone-like hormone (Pthlh) inhibits Indian hedgehog (Ihh) to form a negative-feedback loop that controls GP progression and bone size. Whether similar systems operate in other bones and how they arise during embryogenesis remain unclear. We show that Pthlha expression in the zebrafish craniofacial skeleton precedes chondrocyte differentiation and restricts where cells undergo hypertrophy, thereby initiating a future GP. Loss of Pthlha leads to an expansion of cells expressing a novel early marker of the hypertrophic zone (HZ), entpd5a, and later HZ markers, such as ihha, whereas local Pthlha misexpression induces ectopic entpd5a expression. Formation of this early pre-HZ correlates with onset of muscle contraction and requires mechanical force; paralysis leads to loss of entpd5a and ihha expression in the pre-HZ, mislocalized pthlha expression and no subsequent ossification. These results suggest that local Pthlh sources combined with force determine HZ locations, establishing the negative-feedback loop that later maintains GPs.

Genetic modifiers of abnormal organelle biogenesis in a Drosophila model of BLOC-1 deficiency.

Biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles complex 1 (BLOC-1) is a protein complex formed by the products of eight distinct genes. Loss-of-function mutations in two of these genes, DTNBP1 and BLOC1S3, cause Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, a human disorder characterized by defective biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles. In addition, haplotype variants within the same two genes have been postulated to increase the risk of developing schizophrenia. However, the molecular function of BLOC-1 remains unknown. Here, we have generated a fly model of BLOC-1 deficiency. Mutant flies lacking the conserved Blos1 subunit displayed eye pigmentation defects due to abnormal pigment granules, which are lysosome-related organelles, as well as abnormal glutamatergic transmission and behavior. Epistatic analyses revealed that BLOC-1 function in pigment granule biogenesis requires the activities of BLOC-2 and a putative Rab guanine-nucleotide-exchange factor named Claret. The eye pigmentation phenotype was modified by misexpression of proteins involved in intracellular protein trafficking; in particular, the phenotype was partially ameliorated by Rab11 and strongly enhanced by the clathrin-disassembly factor, Auxilin. These observations validate Drosophila melanogaster as a powerful model for the study of BLOC-1 function and its interactions with modifier genes.

Zebrafish endochondral growth zones as they relate to human bone size, shape and disease.

Research on the genetic mechanisms underlying human skeletal development and disease have largely relied on studies in mice. However, recently the zebrafish has emerged as a popular model for skeletal research. Despite anatomical differences such as a lack of long bones in their limbs and no hematopoietic bone marrow, both the cell types in cartilage and bone as well as the genetic pathways that regulate their development are remarkably conserved between teleost fish and humans. Here we review recent studies that highlight this conservation, focusing specifically on the cartilaginous growth zones (GZs) of endochondral bones. GZs can be unidirectional such as the growth plates (GPs) of long bones in tetrapod limbs or bidirectional, such as in the synchondroses of the mammalian skull base. In addition to endochondral growth, GZs play key roles in cartilage maturation and replacement by bone. Recent studies in zebrafish suggest key roles for cartilage polarity in GZ function, surprisingly early establishment of signaling systems that regulate cartilage during embryonic development, and important roles for cartilage proliferation rather than hypertrophy in bone size. Despite anatomical differences, there are now many zebrafish models for human skeletal disorders including mutations in genes that cause defects in cartilage associated with endochondral GZs. These point to conserved developmental mechanisms, some of which operate both in cranial GZs and limb GPs, as well as others that act earlier or in parallel to known GP regulators. Experimental advantages of zebrafish for genetic screens, high resolution live imaging and drug screens, set the stage for many novel insights into causes and potential therapies for human endochondral bone diseases.

Functional interactions between OCA2 and the protein complexes BLOC-1, BLOC-2, and AP-3 inferred from epistatic analyses of mouse coat pigmentation.

The biogenesis of melanosomes is a multistage process that requires the function of cell-type-specific and ubiquitously expressed proteins. OCA2, the product of the gene defective in oculocutaneous albinism type 2, is a melanosomal membrane protein with restricted expression pattern and a potential role in the trafficking of other proteins to melanosomes. The ubiquitous protein complexes AP-3, BLOC-1, and BLOC-2, which contain as subunits the products of genes defective in various types of Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, have been likewise implicated in trafficking to melanosomes. We have tested for genetic interactions between mutant alleles causing deficiency in OCA2 (pink-eyed dilution unstable), AP-3 (pearl), BLOC-1 (pallid), and BLOC-2 (cocoa) in C57BL/6J mice. The pallid allele was epistatic to pink-eyed dilution, and the latter behaved as a semi-dominant phenotypic enhancer of cocoa and, to a lesser extent, of pearl. These observations suggest functional links between OCA2 and these three protein complexes involved in melanosome biogenesis.