Psychosocial aspects of coping that predict post-traumatic stress disorder for African American survivors of homicide victims.

African Americans disproportionately experience homicide, and the psychological consequence of experiencing this traumatic event interferes with daily function, often in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). According to the Model of Coping for African American Survivors of Homicide Victims (MCAASHV), African Americans coping with the traumatic impact of homicide are influenced by: the violent nature of the death itself, racial- and cultural-bound experiences (e.g., cultural trauma, the culture of homicide including stigma, blame, shame, and lack of justice) and psychological processes including racial appraisal and coping strategies (e.g., spiritual, collective, meaning making). This study examined the direct and indirect effects racial- and cultural-bound experiences have on PTSD through coping strategies among 304 African American survivors of homicide victims across the United States using Qualtrics Panel collected in March-May 2018. The path analysis model demonstrated strong model fit, and the variables in the model accounted for 34% variance in PTSD. Coping (ß = -0.38, p < .001) and culture of homicide (ß = -0.27, p < .001) were negatively related to PTSD. Cultural trauma (ß = 0.11, p < .014), culture of homicide (ß = 0.43, p < .001), reactions to homicide (ß = 0.11, p < .006) and racial appraisal (ß = 0.32, p < .001) were positively associated with coping (R2 = 52%), and all were indirectly associated with PTSD through coping. Findings provide strong support for the MCAASHV and highlight the direct and indirect effects of racial and cultural experiences of coping that explain PTSD among African Americans chronically exposed to homicide.

Heavy Episodic Drinking Trajectories Among Underage Young Adult Women: The Role of Feminine Norms.

BACKGROUND: Heavy episodic drinking (HED; 4 or more drinks in a 2-hour period) in U.S. college women has increased by 40% in the past 30 years. This dramatic shift suggests that women are "closing the gender gap" and are drinking at rates similar to men. Multidimensional feminine norms, or beliefs and expectations about what it means to be a woman, are theoretically promising and gender-relevant factors that may help account for within-group differences in problematic drinking patterns among this increasingly at-risk group. The aim of this study was to identify distinct developmental trajectories of HED among underage young adult women and examine the gender-relevant factors that predict these typologies. METHODS: Growth mixture modeling was used to identify latent trajectory classes of HED over the course of a year (3 time points) in 700 underage (Wave 1, Mage  = 18, SD = 0.32) young adult women from a Mid-Atlantic university in the United States. Logistic regression analyses evaluated feminine norm endorsement, sorority status, perceived peer norms, expectancies, alcohol-related consequences, and marijuana use as predictors of the latent trajectory classes. RESULTS: About 64.4% of underage women reported engaging in HED. Three HED latent trajectory classes were identified as follows: (i) High Risk, (31%) reported weekly HED over the course of the year; (ii) Monthly HED (33.4%) reported engaging in HED roughly once a month; and (iii) Abstainers (35.6%) reported no HED over the course of the year. The High-Risk class reported significantly more alcohol-related problems and marijuana use than the other trajectory classes. The multidimensional feminine norms of sexual fidelity and appearance were significantly associated with the latent trajectory classes even when controlling for well-established correlates of drinking. CONCLUSIONS: High-risk drinking typologies were identified in underage women, and these trajectories were related to feminine norms. Prevention and intervention programs targeting gender-relevant factors may help reduce problematic drinking and marijuana use among underage women engaging in problematic patterns of drinking.

The Development of a Culturally Adapted Pilot Intervention for African American Family Members of Homicide Victims: A Preliminary Report.

African Americans are disproportionately impacted by homicide in the United States. Individuals who have lost a relative to homicide often experience symptoms of complicated grief. The objective of this study was to explore the impact of a culturally tailored psychoeducational pilot intervention whose development was informed by a conceptual model of coping for African American survivors of homicide victims and was designed to (a) educate participants about the manifestation of complicated grief and symptoms and (b) help participants develop ways to cope with their grief. Pre- and post-test results indicate preliminary support for this encouraging intervention in achieving its intended outcomes to help participants identify complicated grief symptoms, supports, and services to help them manage their grief. Implications for posthomicide research and practice are discussed.

Testing for Measurement Invariance in the Conformity to Masculine Norms-46 Across White and Asian American College Men: Development and Validity of the CMNI-29.

The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI; Mahalik et al., 2003) and revised CMNI-46 (Parent & Moradi, 2009) have received a great deal of empirical attention and support for their strong psychometric properties and evidence of construct validity. However, one important area that remains unexplored is how adherence to these masculine norms may vary across race and ethnicity. The current investigation examines the possible racial measurement noninvariance in the CMNI-46 among Asian American and White American college students (N = 893). The results revealed significant measurement differences across groups; specifically, the CMNI-46 was more theoretically consistent for the White American men than the Asian American men. Through exploratory and multigroup confirmatory factor analysis, an 8-factor, 29-item version of the CMNI emerged, displaying an excellent overall model fit for both racial groups. This study provides strong evidence for the use of a streamlined 29-item version of the CMNI, validated with Asian American and White American men. The findings also lend further empirical and psychometric evidence regarding the variance of masculine norms among ethnic groups as well as the variance of the multidimensional construct of masculinity.

College Men and Alcohol Use: Positive Alcohol Expectancies as a Mediator Between Distinct Masculine Norms and Alcohol Use.

College men are more likely to engage in health-compromising behaviors including risky drinking behavior, and experience more alcohol-related problems, including violence and arrest, as compared to women. The study of masculine norms or societal expectations, defined as beliefs and values about what it means to be a man, is one promising area of investigation that may help explain within-group differences and differential rates of alcohol use among men. Using the gender social learning model, we investigated the role of positive alcohol expectancies as an underlying mediator between masculine norms and alcohol use among college men. Data from 804 college adult men (Mean age = 20.43) were collected through a web-based assessment. Participants completed a self-report measure of binge drinking, frequency of drinking, quantity of drinks, conformity to masculine norms, and positive alcohol expectancies measures. Structural equation modeling was used to examine relations between masculine norms, alcohol expectancies and alcohol use. The masculine norms of "Playboy" and Risk-Taking were positively related to heavy alcohol use, while Emotional Control and Heterosexual Presentation were both negatively associated with alcohol use, after controlling for fraternity Greek status and positive expectancies. Playboy and Winning norms were positively associated with positive expectancies while Power Over Women was inversely related to positive expectancies which, in turn, were associated with heavier alcohol use. This study was a novel exploration into the multiple pathways and mediators through which positive alcohol expectancies may help explain and provide specificity to the masculinity and alcohol use relationship among college men.

Validation of the Revised BSI-18 With Latino Migrant Day Laborers.

Objective: This study examines the factor structure of the Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18; Derogatis, 2001) in a hard-to-reach population of mainly undocumented migrant Latino day laborers. While, the BSI-18 has been found to be a valid and reliable measure of psychological distress, cross-cultural assessments in sub-groups of Latinos are scarce withthis being the first study to examine the factor structure of the Spanish version of the BSI-18 with this population. Methods: A series of principal axis exploratory factor analytic procedures examining one to three-factor models were performed with a street recruited sample of 150 Latino migrant day laborers. Results: A one-factor model emerged and four items were dropped due to low factor loadings. The internal consistency coefficients for the 14-item BSI was α = .87. Conclusions: Findings suggest that the revised BSI-18 appears to measure a single dimension of general somatic-psychological distress in this sample of Latinos.

The Racial and Ethnic Identity Formation Process of Second-Generation Asian Indian Americans: A Phenomenological Study.

This phenomenological study elucidates the identity development processes of 12 second-generation adult Asian Indian Americans. The results identify salient sociocultural factors and multidimensional processes of racial and ethnic identity development. Discrimination, parental, and community factors seemed to play a salient role in influencing participants' racial and ethnic identity development. The emergent Asian Indian American racial and ethnic identity model provides a contextualized overview of key developmental periods and turning points within the process of identity development.

Development and validation of the Inventory of Stress and Coping for African American Survivors of Homicide Victims.

OBJECTIVE: African Americans disproportionately experience homicide. However, validated measures designed to assess the traumatic impact of coping with murder for surviving family members and friends of homicide victims are absent from research. This article describes four studies that contributed to the development and preliminary validation of the Inventory of Stress and Coping for African American Survivors of Homicide Victims (ISCASHV). The ISCASHV is a measure that assesses multicomponents (e.g., stress, appraisals, stigma, coping) of the sociocultural and psychological processes in which African Americans cope with homicide. METHOD AND RESULTS: Studies 2-4 provide strong support for the multicomponent 42-item scale consisting of five factors: cultural trauma, reactions to homicide, culture of homicide, racial appraisal, and coping. The ISCASHV demonstrates strong construct validity evidence and good internal consistency estimates. Each of the five measures demonstrated a high test-retest estimate for a 2-week period, suggesting the temporal stability of the factors. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that the ISCASHV is a promising multicomponent measure that assesses the racial- and sociocultural-bound manifestation of homicide-related grief for African American survivors of homicide victims. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The Role of Masculine Norms and Informal Support on Mental Health in Incarcerated Men.

Mental health problems, in general, and major depression in particular, are prevalent among incarcerated men. It is estimated that 23% of state inmates report experiencing symptoms of major depression. Despite the high rates of depressive symptoms, there is little understanding about the psychosocial factors that are associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms of incarcerated men. One factor relevant to the mental health of incarcerated men is their adherence to traditional masculine norms. We investigated the role of masculine norms and informal support on depressive and anxiety symptoms among 123 incarcerated men. The results revealed that adherence to the masculine norm of emotional control were negatively associated with depressive symptoms while heterosexual presentation and informal support were related to both depressive and anxiety symptoms. High levels of reported informal support moderated the effects of heterosexual presentation on depressive and anxiety symptoms. Public health and clinical implications are discussed.

The impact of racial identity, ethnic identity, asian values and race-related stress on Asian Americans and Asian international college students' psychological well-being.

The current study investigated the direct and moderating effects of racial identity, ethnic identity, Asian values, and race-related stress on positive psychological well-being among 402 Asian American and Asian international college students. Results revealed that the racial identity statuses Internalization, Immersion-Emersion, Dissonance, Asian values and Ethnic Identity Affirmation and Belonging were significant predictors of well-being. Asian values, Dissonance and Conformity were found to moderate the relationship between race-related stress on well-being. Specifically, individuals in low race-related stress conditions who had low Asian values, high Conformity and low Dissonance attitudes started high on well being but decreased as race-related stress increased. These findings underscore the importance of how racial identity statuses, Asian values and ethnic identity jointly and uniquely explain and moderate the effects of race-related stress on positive well-being. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.

Masculine Norms, Avoidant Coping, Asian Values and Depression among Asian American Men.

Contrary to the "model minority" myth, growing research indicates that the rates of mental health problems among Asian Americans may be higher than initially assumed. This study seeks to add to the scant knowledge regarding the mental health of Asian American men by examining the role of masculine norms, coping and cultural values in predicting depression among this population (N=149). Results reveal that Asian American men who used avoidant coping strategies and endorsed the masculine norm Dominance reported higher levels of depressive symptoms. In contrast, endorsing Winning masculine norms was associated to lower levels of depressive symptoms. Findings suggest that adherence to masculine norms and avoidant coping strategies play a salient role in the mental health of Asian American men.

Young Adult Women and Alcohol-Related Problems: The Key Role of Multidimensional Feminine Norms.

Young adult college women are closing the gender gap with respect to heavy episodic drinking and alcohol-related problems. Accordingly, it is important to understand and examine the factors that help explain within-group differences in problematic drinking patterns among this vulnerable population. One promising theoretically-relevant factor that appears to explain problematic alcohol use among young adult women is conformity to multidimensional feminine norms. Feminine norms are the beliefs and/or expectations of what it means to be a woman. This review paper identifies the current trends and limitations of research examining the role of feminine norms on alcohol use among young adult women in college. The review of the literature suggests that relationship between feminine norms and alcohol problems is complex in that there are costs and benefits for endorsing and opposing different feminine norms. Women who endorse appearance and relational feminine norms such as striving to be thin, focusing on their appearance, and maintaining relationships are at heighten risk of engaging in heavy episodic drinking and alcohol problems. Women who endorse feminine norms including maintaining sexual relationships with one partner, endorse the belief that one should be modest, and sweet, and nice, and upholding domestic values are less likely to report alcohol problems. Clinical and future research recommendations are provided.

The association between multidimensional feminine norms, binge drinking and alcohol-related problems among young adult college women.

Alcohol consumption among women has steadily increased over the past 30years, and women's drinking behavior is now similar to that of men's. The escalation of alcohol use among women highlights the critical need to examine gender issues and motivational factors that contribute to binge drinking and related problems within this population. Feminine norms or the socially constructed beliefs, messages and attitudes about what it means to be a woman may contribute to within-group differences in drinking patterns among women. The current study examined the relationship between multidimensional feminine norms and binge drinking and alcohol-related problems among 1910 college women. Participants completed a self-report measure of binge drinking, alcohol-related problems, conformity to feminine norms, alcohol expectancies and descriptive norms. Controlling for the covariates descriptive norms, positive alcohol expectancies, and sorority membership, adherence to feminine norms related to sexual fidelity and belief that one needs to be sweet and nice were negatively associated to binge drinking, while adhering to investment in appearance was positively associated to binge drinking and alcohol-related problems. Distinct feminine norms also had a significant indirect effect on alcohol-related problems through binge drinking. This study significant contributes to the literature by elucidating the theoretically gender-relevant risk and protective aspects of feminine norms in relation to binge drinking and related problems, and provides important information that might be used in clinical and prevention efforts to reduce alcohol-related harm among a vulnerable group: college women.

Under-Researched Demographics: Heavy Episodic Drinking and Alcohol-Related Problems Among Asian Americans.

Asian Americans represent the fastest- growing population in the United States (Le 2010). At the same time, there is evidence that problematic drinking rates are increasing among young-adult Asian Americans (Grant et al. 2004). Accordingly, it is essential to understand the etiological determinants and mechanisms of risk that may help explain this growth in problematic alcohol use among this group. The high prevalence of the ALDH2*2 and ADH1B*2 alleles in a large percentage of Asian subgroups has been studied as a potential protective factors against alcohol abuse, yet some individuals who possess these genes still engage in problematic alcohol use (Wall et al. 2001). Other social and psychological factors may account for this discrepancy. Thus, some factors, such as negative physiological alcohol expectancies, are protective against alcohol abuse in this population (Hendershot et al. 2009). Sociocultural factors such as acculturation and nativity also may help explain drinking patterns among this group. The literature suggests that vast and significant within-group differences exist among Asian Americans, such that individuals who were born in the United States and/or are more acculturated are at elevated risk for alcohol abuse and related problems (Hahm et al. 2003). Differences also have been observed among Asian-American ethnic subgroups, with some groups (e.g., Japanese, Korean, and multi-Asian Americans) reporting higher rates of drinking compared with others (e.g., Chinese and Vietnamese Americans) (Iwamoto et al. 2012). Furthermore, Asian Americans who report higher levels of depressive symptoms, psychological distress, and perceived discrimination seem to be at a heightened risk for abusing alcohol (Iwamoto et al. 2011a; Nishimura et al. 2005; Yoo et al. 2010). Finally, an emerging body of research examining gender-relevant factors, including feminine and masculine norms, may help explain within-group differences among Asian-American women and men. Thus, traditional norms that may directly pertain to hyperfemininzed Asian-American women, including modesty and sexual fidelity, may protect against heavy episodic drinking (Young et al. 2005). Conversely, the risk for heavy episodic drinking may be enhanced in men who strive to demonstrate traditional notions of masculinity through risk-taking and endorsement of playboy norms (Iwamoto et al. 2010). Although this review has illustrated the contemporary state of research on alcohol use among Asian Americans, it also highlights the significant limitations in this literature. Many of the studies reviewed here have used cross-sectional data, which do not allow researchers to infer causality between the various sociocultural factors and problematic alcohol use. One way of addressing this gap in the existing literature may be to implement longitudinal designs to further understand how the temporal relationship between sociocultural factors, including acculturation and gender norms, may impact alcohol use and alcohol-related problem trajectories. There also is a pressing need to develop greater understanding of within-group differences among U.S.-born and foreign-born Asian Americans as well as among as specific ethnic groups. To date, epidemiological research has largely neglected to examine these significant discrepancies. Given the growing prevalence of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems among Asian-American women (Grant et al. 2004; Iwamoto et al. 2010), studies also should focus on this group and explore how the intersection of gender and culture may influence alcohol use. Finally, the majority of research on this population has been conducted in college samples; therefore, it is important to also examine community samples, including U.S.-born young adults who are not attending college and older adult Asian-American populations.

Asian American Women and Alcohol-Related Problems: The Role of Multidimensional Feminine Norms.

Increasing rates of heavy episodic drinking (HED; four or more drinks in one sitting) and alcohol use disorders among young adult Asian American women signify the need to identify the risk and protective factors for HED and alcohol-related problems in this demographic. Multidimensional feminine norms, or the beliefs and expectations of what it means to be a woman, are theoretically relevant factors that may help elucidate within-group variability in HED and alcohol-related problems. The present study examined associations between nine salient feminine norms, HED, and alcohol-related problems among 398 second-generation Asian American college women. Our findings reveal that certain feminine norms are protective of HED and alcohol-related problems, while others are risk factors, even when controlling for well-established correlates of HED and alcohol-related problems, such as perceived peer drinking norms. The results elucidate the importance of multidimensional feminine norms and their relationship to HED and alcohol-related problems among the increasingly at-risk group, Asian American college women.

"Man-ing" up and getting drunk: the role of masculine norms, alcohol intoxication and alcohol-related problems among college men.

Compared to college women, college men face elevated risks for problematic drinking and negative alcohol-related consequences. These risks highlight the critical need to investigate gender issues and risk factors contributing to intoxication and related problems among men. Theoretical models suggest that conforming to masculine norms or the beliefs and expectations of what it means to be a man, may help explain patterns of problematic drinking among men. The current study advances the literature by investigating the association between masculine norms, drinking to intoxication, and alcohol-related consequences among 776 undergraduate males after taking into account the importance of fraternity status and perceived peer norms. Results indicate that fraternity status and higher perceived peer norms regarding drinking increased the risks of getting drunk and experiencing alcohol-related consequences. Specifically, the masculine norms of being a "playboy", risk-taking, and winning were risk factors of drinking to intoxication; while, being a "playboy", risk-taking, and self-reliance increased the risks of alcohol-related problems. Primacy of work and heterosexual presentation were two masculine norms that were protective of drinking to intoxication. Our findings contribute to important future considerations for prevention, clinical interventions, and public-health implications in college settings.

Social work practice with Latinos: key issues for social workers.

The Latino population is the fastest growing group in the United States; thus, it is imperative that social workers and other mental health practitioners be knowledgeable about the current literature on how to effectively serve this population. This article elucidates key issues and knowledge, such as immigration and migration concerns; discusses how to assess for levels of acculturation; examines cultural values; and highlights salient work issues and health disparities that Latinos experience. Recommendations on how agencies and universities can recruit and promote bilingual practitioners are introduced. Finally, culturally responsive strategies for professional use of self and fostering the therapeutic alliance are discussed.