'Real-world' observational studies in arrhythmia research: data sources, methodology, and interpretation. A position document from European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA), endorsed by Heart Rhythm Society (HRS), Asia-Pacific HRS (APHRS), and Latin America HRS (LAHRS).

The field of observational studies or "real world studies" is in rapid development with many new techniques introduced and increased understanding of traditional methods. For this reason the current paper provides an overview of current methods with focus on new techniques. Some highlights can be emphasized: We provide an overview of sources of data for observational studies. There is an overview of sources of bias and confounding. Next There is an overview of causal inference techniques that are increasingly used. The most commonly used techniques for statistical modelling are reviewed with focus on the important distinction of risk versus prediction. The final section provides examples of common problems with reporting observational data.

Novel anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents; a guide for the urologist.

Novel oral anti-coagulants (NOACs) are increasingly being used in clinical practice and are set to almost entirely replace the vitamin K antagonists, such as warfarin, in the near future. Similarly, new antiplatelet agents are now regularly used in place of older agents, such as aspirin and clopidogrel. In an ageing population, with an increasing burden of complex comorbidities, urologists will frequently encounter patients who will be using such agents. Some background knowledge, and an understanding, of these drugs and the issues that surround their usage, is essential. The present article will provide readers with an understanding of these new drugs, including their mechanisms of action, the up-to-date evidence justifying their recent introduction into clinical practice and the appropriate interval for stopping them before surgery. It will also consider the risks of perioperative bleeding for patients taking these drugs and the risks of venous thromboembolism in those in whom they are stopped. Strategies to manage anticoagulant-associated bleeding are discussed.