Thermoregulation in Malayan sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) and its consequences for in situ conservation.

Thermoregulation in Malayan sun bears is not fully understood. Therefore, in this study the effect of meteorological variables on both behavioural and autonomic thermoregulatory mechanisms in sun bears was examined in order to identify temperature thresholds for the activation of various thermoregulatory mechanisms. Infrared thermography was used to non‒invasively determine body surface temperature (TS) distribution in relation to ambient temperature (TA) and to determine the thermoneutral zone (TNZ) of sun bears. Thermographic measurements were performed on 10 adult sun bears at TA between 5 °C and 30 °C in three European zoos. To assess behaviours that contribute to thermoregulation, nine adult sun bears were observed at TA ranging from 5 °C to 34 °C by instantaneous scan sampling in 60 s intervals for a total of 787 h. Thermographic measurements revealed that the TNZ of sun bears lies between 24 °C and 28 °C and that heat is equally dissipated over the body surface. Behavioural data showed that behaviours related to thermoregulation occurred in advance of energetically costly autonomic mechanisms, and were highly correlated with TA and solar radiation. While the temperature threshold for the onset of thermoregulatory behaviours below the TNZ lies around 15 °C, which is well below the lower critical temperature (TLC) assessed by thermography, the onset for behaviours to prevent overheating occurred at 28 °C, which was closer to the estimated upper critical temperature (TUC) of sun bears. These findings provide useful data on the thermal requirements of sun bears with respect to the species potential to cope with the effects of climate change and deforestation which are occurring in their natural range. Furthermore, these results may have important implications for the care and welfare of bears in captivity and should be taken into consideration, when designing and managing facilities.

TREATMENT SUCCESS IN THREE ANDEAN BEARS (TREMARCTOS ORNATUS) WITH ALOPECIA SYNDROME USING OCLACITINIB MALEATE (APOQUEL®).

Andean bear (Tremarctos ornatus) alopecia syndrome (ABAS) commonly affects captive bears, particularly sexually mature females. ABAS is characterized by bilaterally symmetrical predominantly flank alopecia with or without profound pruritus and secondary bacterial and Malassezia infections. There is no effective treatment and severely affected bears have been euthanized. This paper describes the successful management of ABAS in three female Andean bears. Skin biopsies and cytology revealed a mixed dermal inflammatory infiltrate, alopecia, hyperkeratosis, and Malassezia dermatitis. Allergen specific serology was positive for environmental allergens in one case. Hematology, serum biochemistry, and thyroid and adrenal function were normal in all cases. There was no consistent response to novel diet trials, antifungals, antihistamines, allergen specific immunotherapy, or topical antimicrobials. There was a partial response to ciclosporin (Atopica® cat, Novartis Animal Health; 5 mg/kg po, sid) in one case and oral glucocorticoids in all cases (dexamethasone sodium phosphate, [Colvasone 0.2%, Norbrook], 0.15 mg/kg po, sid or prednisolone [Deltacortene, Bruno Farmaceutici, and Megasolone 20, Coophavet], 0.3-1.2 mg/kg po, sid), but treatment was withdrawn following adverse effects. Treatment with oclacitinib maleate (Apoquel®, Zoetis; 0.46-0.5 mg/kg po, bid) resulted in rapid and complete resolution of the pruritus with subsequent improvement in demeanor and fur regrowth. After 5 mo, the bears were almost fully furred and off all other medication. Treatment was tapered to the lowest dose that prevented relapse of the pruritus (0.23-0.4 mg/kg po, sid). No adverse effects have been noted. ABAS is usually an intractable condition, and, to our knowledge, oclacitinib is the first treatment shown to result in sustained clinical improvement. Further studies on the etiology of ABAS, and on efficacy and long-term safety of oclacitinib are needed.

Implementing unpredictability in feeding enrichment for Malayan sun bears (Helarctos malayanus).

Bears in the wild spend large proportions of time in foraging activities. In zoos their time budgets differ markedly from those of their wild counterparts. Feeding enrichment has been documented to increase foraging behavior and to reduce stereotypies. But in general these procedures have no long-term effects and result in habituation. As can be expected by the predictions of the optimal foraging theory, foraging activities are restricted as long as the availability of food is predictable. To quantify the effect of spatial unpredictability, three feeding methods have been designed to stimulate functional foraging behavior in captive Malayan sun bears in the long-term. In order to examine if habituation occurs, the most effective method was tested for 12 consecutive days. Activities of four adult sun bears at the Cologne Zoo were recorded by focal animal recording of foraging behaviors and time sampling of activities for a total of 360 hr. Implementing unpredictability significantly increased the time the bears spent foraging and led to a higher diversity of foraging behaviors. The effects lasted throughout the entire day and no habituation occurred in the course of 12 consecutive days. The study shows how functional species typical behavior in captive Malayan sun bears can be stimulated in the long-term by simulating natural characteristics of food availability.

The evolutionary history of bears is characterized by gene flow across species.

Bears are iconic mammals with a complex evolutionary history. Natural bear hybrids and studies of few nuclear genes indicate that gene flow among bears may be more common than expected and not limited to polar and brown bears. Here we present a genome analysis of the bear family with representatives of all living species. Phylogenomic analyses of 869 mega base pairs divided into 18,621 genome fragments yielded a well-resolved coalescent species tree despite signals for extensive gene flow across species. However, genome analyses using different statistical methods show that gene flow is not limited to closely related species pairs. Strong ancestral gene flow between the Asiatic black bear and the ancestor to polar, brown and American black bear explains uncertainties in reconstructing the bear phylogeny. Gene flow across the bear clade may be mediated by intermediate species such as the geographically wide-spread brown bears leading to large amounts of phylogenetic conflict. Genome-scale analyses lead to a more complete understanding of complex evolutionary processes. Evidence for extensive inter-specific gene flow, found also in other animal species, necessitates shifting the attention from speciation processes achieving genome-wide reproductive isolation to the selective processes that maintain species divergence in the face of gene flow.

Fecal steroid analysis for monitoring reproduction in the sun bear (Helarctos malayanus).

Fecal steroid analyses were conducted on captive (n = 10) and free-ranging (n = 2) sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) in order to establish a noninvasive technique for monitoring endocrine profiles during the estrous cycle and pregnancy. Secondly, the effect of the contraceptive porcine zona pellucida protein (PZP) on reproductive function was studied. Finally, we investigated whether the sun bear, naturally living in the aseasonal tropical forests of Southeast Asia, is a seasonal breeder. Fecal samples were collected over periods of 7-48 months in captive untreated (n = 8) and PZP-treated (n = 2) female sun bears. In addition samples were collected over a period of 12 months from radio-collared free-ranging females (n = 2) in their natural habitat in Indonesian Borneo. Androgens, precursors of estrogens, were found to be reliable indicators of the follicular phase, whereas estrogens were found unsuitable. Pregnanediol assay was found to be a reliable indicator of luteal function. Results indicate that sun bears are polyestrous, nonseasonal breeders. Interestrus intervals in nonpregnant animals (n = 2), which were monitored for 27 months, were between 140 and 216 days. Luteal phases (89.6 +/- 3.7 days; n = 9) were preceded by androgen peaks of 15.2 +/- 1.0 days (n = 10). Hormonal profiles of two females treated with PZP indicated missing ovarian activity in one, and persistent follicular and luteal activity in another animal. However, extended periods of missing ovarian, and persistent follicular and luteal activity were also observed in other sun bears studied.