Some needed psychological clarifications on the experience(s) of shamanism.

The target article's use of core concepts is confused and excessively broad. Two main types of experiences have been described in relation to shamanism: magical flight and mediumship/possession. The first refers to visual and remembered experiences of events in other realms, the second to embodied experiences of ceding mental control and personality to a preternatural entity. These experiences grossly correspond to two main experience modalities exhibited by highly hypnotizable individuals in a secular setting.

Dissociation From a Cross-Cultural Perspective: Implications of Studies in Brazil.

A major issue in the study of dissociation concerns the cross-cultural validity of definitions and measurements used to identify and classify dissociative disorders. There is also extensive debate on the etiological factors underlying dissociative experiences. Cross-cultural research is essential to elucidate these issues, particularly regarding evidence obtained from countries in which the study of dissociation is still in its infancy. The aim of this article was to discuss Brazilian research on the topic of dissociation, highlighting its contributions for the understanding of dissociative experiences in nonclinical populations and for the validity and relevance of dissociative disorders in the contexts of psychiatry, psychology, and psychotherapy. We also consider the ways in which dissociative experiences are assimilated by Brazilian culture and religious expressions, and the implications of Brazilian studies for the sociocultural investigation of dissociation. We conclude by addressing the limitations of these studies and potential areas for future research.

Walter Freeman III and the Chaotic Nature of Dreams.

The contributions and life of Walter Freeman III are celebrated through an understanding of the neurodynamics of the dreaming brain. Beginning with a brief review of the universal dynamics of self-organizing systems, this paper turns to an exploration of dreaming through the application of concepts from chaos theory to brain activity during REM-state dreaming. Recent studies of the electrophysiology of the brain during REM state dreaming are reviewed, such as the active inhibition of sensory stimulation and, especially in REM sleep, alterations in the brain's dominant neuromodulatory systems, bombardment of the visual cortex with bursts of PGO activity, increased limbic system activity, and a reduction of activity in the brain's prefrontal regions. The paper briefly examines these findings in terms of the experience of dreaming itself as revealed by dream reports. The results suggest a reconciliation of brain-based and content-based attempts to understand the nature of dreaming.

A new bioinformatics paradigm for the theory, research, and practice of therapeutic hypnosis.

In a 2008 pilot study we used DNA microarrays to explore the historical ideo-plastic faculty of therapeutic hypnosis. We documented how to measure changes in activity or experience-dependent gene expression over relatively brief time periods (1 hour and 24 hours) following a single intervention of therapeutic hypnosis (about 1 hour). In the present paper we utilize bioinformatic software to explore the possible meaning and significance of this ideo-plastic faculty of therapeutic hypnosis. Indications suggest that the ideo-plastic process of therapeutic hypnosis may be associated with (1) the heightening of a molecular-genomic signature for the up-regulation (heightened activity) of genes characteristic of stem cell growth, (2) a reduction in cellular oxidative stress, and (3) a reduction in chronic inflammation. We identify these three empirical associations as an initial beta version of the molecular-genomic signature of the ideo-plastic process of therapeutic hypnosis, which can serve as a theoretical and practical guide for clinical excellence by beginners as well as senior professionals. We propose this molecular-genomic level of discourse as a supplement to the traditional cognitive-behavioral description of therapeutic suggestion, hypnosis, and psychotherapy that is consistent with "translational research" currently funded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH).

Changes in spirituality among ayahuasca ceremony novice participants.

Ayahuasca, a hallucinogenic plant brew from the Amazon basin used as part of healing ceremonies by the local indigenous people of the region for centuries, is now being consumed by growing numbers of people throughout the world. Anecdotal evidence and previous research suggest that there are spiritual effects experienced among participants who take part in ayahuasca ceremonies. The current study examined whether novice participants' spirituality was affected through participation in an ayahuasca ceremony, and if so, how. A mixed-design method was used, comparing those participating in an ayahuasca ceremony to those who did not participate. This investigation used the Peak Experience Profile, the Spiritual Well-being Scale, and the Mysticism Scale as quantitative measures. Participant interviews and written accounts of ceremony experiences were analyzed. Results showed that neither the SWB score nor the M-Scale score increased significantly after participating in an ayahuasca ceremony. However, it was found that the higher the PEP score, the greater the positive change in SWB and M-Scale scores. Qualitative data revealed common spiritual themes in many of the participants' interviews and written accounts. Experiential differences were displayed within the ayahuasca ceremony group, warranting continued investigation into, and identification of, various confounding variables that prompt reported changes in spirituality within some participants while not in others.

Remote Viewing of Concealed Target Pictures Under Light and Dark Conditions.

CONTEXT: The belief that performing a nonlocal task in darkness plays a facilitating role in remote viewing and other psi-related phenomena is well established in esoteric and traditional beliefs (Grim, 1983; Hallowell, 1942; Lyon, 2012). However, the role of darkness in RV success is unclear beyond these esoteric explanations. OBJECTIVE: This study explored the differential effect of darkness/light on remote viewing ability alongside the effect of time and their potential interaction. DESIGN: From an initial sample of twenty, seven remote viewers contributed a total of nineteen sessions each (nine light/ten dark) which utilised randomized target selection, free-response descriptions, and ratings by both participants and an independent judge. RESULTS: The usable data gave the edge to dark condition performance; the difference was not statistically significant. A statistically significant difference between remote viewer and independent judge raw scores attributed to the target image was identified (t (132) = 4.56, p <.001 (two-tailed) Mdiff = 14.21 [8.05, 20.4]) with a medium effect size (d = 0.40 [0.21, 0.57]). Exploratory post-hoc analyses concerning the numinosity of target images were conducted, to determine if this characteristic was associated with success. For numinosity ratings of target images, a mean difference of 11.24, 95% CI [0.12, 22.3] was shown as significant, with the target images of participant 'hit' sessions containing higher numinosity ratings than unsuccessful 'miss' sessions (t (11.47) = 2.22, p (two-tailed) = .048) with a large effect size (d = 1.02, [0.01, 1.99]). CONCLUSION: The findings may have implications for the use of participant judgments in future remote viewing research. Furthermore, because there are several advantages to what parapsychologists refer to as "free response" targets as opposed to "forced choice" targets (Honorton, 1975), the findings for target numinosity may have implications for the future selection of target material.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy with Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback for Adults with Persistent Noncombat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To test the effectiveness of a mental health therapy designed to reduce noncombat-related persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in 30 adult outpatients with a diagnosis of PTSD. The individual treatment offered modules to address PTSD nightmare distress, dissociation, general core skills, alterations in arousal and reactivity, avoidance, intrusion, and negative alternations in cognitions and mood. The therapeutic approach centered on cognitive behavioral therapy and heart rate variability biofeedback. METHODS: The study had 2 components: The quality improvement project that performed the treatment within a standard care environment, and a retrospective medical chart review process that analyzed the results. The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition, was used to confirm the initial PTSD diagnosis and was the primary measure used to monitor change in the diagnosis following treatment. RESULTS: None of the patients who completed the PTSD treatment met criteria for a PTSD diagnosis in the posttreatment assessment. A 1-sample test of proportions, with a 95% confidence interval and a significance level of p < 0.05, showed p = 0.0008, and that the proportion of patients who would not have PTSD if the study was repeated would be 86.77% to 100.00%. The treatment dropout rate was 13% (4 patients). CONCLUSION: The study findings suggest that this intervention is an effective treatment for helping adult patients, including those with a history of childhood abuse, remit their PTSD diagnosis.

Trance and the trickster: hypnosis as a liminal phenomenon.

This paper makes the case that hypnotic phenomena are liminal in nature and that hypnotic practitioners (such as Milton Erickson) share many traits with traditional societies' "tricksters." The ambiguous nature of hypnosis has been apparent since the days of Mesmer's animal magnetism. Hypnotized people often report hallucinations that confound their ordinary distinctions between reality and illusion, external and internal processes, and many other binary oppositions, including time and space as well as mind and body. In addition, hypnosis can obscure the distinction between fact and fiction in one's memory, as is evident in the "recovered memory" controversy. The role played by imagination is central to both indigenous rituals and hypnosis, and hypnosis is a multifaceted phenomenon requiring explanation at multiple levels. Some investigators and practitioners have missed the importance of the social context in which hypnosis occurs, while others have come close to destroying the most interesting and useful hypnotic phenomena under the guise of objectivity.

Conflicting perspectives on shamans and shamanism: points and counterpoints.

Shamans' communities grant them privileged status to attend to those groups' psychological and spiritual needs. Shamans claim to modify their attentional states and engage in activities that enable them to access information not ordinarily attainable by members of the social group that has granted them shamanic status. Western perspectives on shamanism have changed and clashed over the centuries; this address presents points and counterpoints regarding what might be termed the demonic model, the charlatan model, the schizophrenia model, the soul flight model, the degenerative and crude technology model, and the deconstructionist model. Western interpretations of shamanism often reveal more about the observer than they do about the observed; in addressing this challenge, the study of shamanism could make contributions to cognitive neuroscience, social psychology, psychological therapy, and ecological psychology.

Os primeiros curadores da humanidade: abordagens psicológicas e psiquiátricas sobre os xamãs e o xamanismo / Humanitys first healers: psychological and psychiatric stances on shamans and shamanism

CONTEXTO: o autor descreve os xamãs como curadores que deliberadamente modificam seu padrão fenomenológico de atenção, percepção, cognição e consciência para obter informações não disponíveis ordinariamente aos membros do grupo social que lhes concedeu status privilegiado. OBJETIVOS: descrever como estas alterações fenomenológicas foram alcançadas e utilizadas. MÉTODOS: foram utilizados estudos da literatura xamânica em arquivo e pesquisas de campo em comunidades onde xamãs estão atuando ativamente. RESULTADOS: a fonte das informações obtidas pelos xamãs é atribuída a forças e entidades desencarnadas, como espíritos, ancestrais, guias animais e campos energéticos. Essas fontes foram contatadas através de toques ritualizados de tambores, danças, sonhos lúcidos, uso de plantas psicotrópicas, atenção focalizada e outros recursos. Este estudo foi importante, pois mostrou que os xamãs utilizam as informações obtidas para atender às necessidades sociais, psicológicas e médicas de suas comunidades. CONCLUSÕES: o disseminado aparecimento dos xamãs, especialmente em tribos caçadoras e coletoras, indica que suas presenças possuem funções adaptativas em um grupo social. Além disso, estes dados podem trazer importantes contribuições para a neurociência cognitiva, psicologia social, psicoterapia e psicologia ecológica.

BACKGROUND: the author describes shamans as practitioners who deliberately shift their phenomenological pattern of attention, perception, cognition, and awareness in order to obtain information not ordinarily available to members of the social group that granted them privileged status. OBJECTIVES: to describe how these phenomenological shifts were accomplished and used. METHODS: archival studies of shamanic literature as well as field research in communities where shamans are actively functioning. RESULTS: the source of shaman-derived information is attributed to such discarnate entities and forces as spirits, ancestors, animal guides, and energetic fields. These agencies were contacted through ritualized drumming, dancing, lucid dreaming, the use of psychotropic plants, focused attention, and other technologies. This study was important because it determined that shamans utilize the obtained information to attend to their communitys social, psychological, and medical needs. CONCLUSIONS: the ubiquitous appearance of shamans, especially in hunting and gathering tribes, indicates that their presence in a social group served adaptive functions. Further, these data can make important contributions to cognitive neuroscience, social psychology, psychotherapy, and ecological psychology.