Analysis of rare disruptive germline mutations in 2135 enriched BRCA-negative breast cancers excludes additional high-impact susceptibility genes.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer has a significant heritable basis, of which ∼60% remains unexplained. Testing for BRCA1/BRCA2 offers useful discrimination of breast cancer risk within families, and identification of additional breast cancer susceptibility genes could offer clinical utility. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We included 2135 invasive breast cancer cases recruited via the Breast and Ovarian Cancer Susceptibility study, a retrospective UK study of familial breast cancer. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: female, BRCA-negative, white European ethnicity, and one of: (i) breast cancer family history, (ii) bilateral disease, (iii) young age of onset (<30 years), and (iv) concomitant ovarian cancer. We undertook exome sequencing of cases and carried out gene-level burden testing of rare damaging variants against those from 51 377 ethnicity-matched population controls from gnomAD. RESULTS: 159/2135 (7.4%) cases had a qualifying variant in an established breast cancer susceptibility gene, with minimal evidence of signal in other cancer susceptibility genes. Known breast cancer susceptibility genes PALB2, CHEK2, and ATM were the only genes to retain statistical significance after correcting for multiple testing. Due to the enrichment of hereditary cases in the series, we had good power (>80%) to detect a gene of BRCA1-like risk [odds ratio (OR) = 10.6] down to a population minor allele frequency of 4.6 × 10-5 (1 in 10 799, less than one-tenth that of BRCA1)and of PALB2-like risk (OR = 5.0) down to a population minor allele frequency of 2.8 × 10-4 (1 in 1779, less than half that of PALB2). Power was lower for identification of novel moderate penetrance genes (OR = 2-3) like CHEK2 and ATM. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest case-control whole-exome analysis of enriched breast cancer published to date. Whilst additional breast cancer susceptibility genes likely exist, those of high penetrance are likely to be of very low mutational frequency. Contention exists regarding the clinical utility of such genes.

Young age at first pregnancy does protect against early onset breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers.

PURPOSE: Previous research assessing the impact of pregnancy and age at first pregnancy on breast cancer risk in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers has produced conflicting results, with some studies showing an increased risk following early first pregnancy in contrast to the reduced risk in the general population of women. The present study addresses these inconsistencies. METHODS: Female BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers from North West England were assessed for breast cancer incidence prior to 50 years of age comparing those with an early first full-term pregnancy (< 21 years) to those without a full-term pregnancy. Breast cancer incidence per decade from 20 years and Kaplan-Meier analyses were performed. RESULTS: 2424 female mutation carriers (1278 BRCA1; 1146 BRCA2) developed 990 breast cancers under the age of 50 years. Women who had their first term pregnancy prior to age 21 (n = 441) had a lower cancer incidence especially between age 30-39 years. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed an odds ratio of 0.78 for BRCA1 (p = 0.005) and 0.73 for BRCA2 (p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates a clear protective effect of early first pregnancy on breast cancer risk in both BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers.

Low prevalence of HER2 positivity amongst BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers and in primary BRCA screens.

The aim of this study is to delineate more clearly the prevalence of HER2+ breast cancer in women with germline BRCA1/2 mutations. For this purpose, we analysed primary mutation screens on women with breast cancer with unequivocal HER2 amplification and assessed the proportion of BRCA1 and BRCA2 breast cancers that were HER2+ comparing this with the existing literature. The results are that 1063 primary BRCA screens had confirmed tumour HER2 status. If HER2+ only 2.5 % (4/156) and 3.2 % (5/156) of women had a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation identified respectively; compared to 27.7 % (115/415) and 8.2 % (34/415) with triple negative tumours. Only 2.1 % (4/195) women with BRCA1-related breast cancer had HER2 amplified breast cancers rising to 6.8 % (n = 12, p = 0.04) in BRCA2. These rates are in keeping with most of the existing literature except a recent large multicenter report which documented higher rates but with no control group. The study concluded that true HER2-amplified breast cancers are rare amongst BRCA1 mutation carriers and are less common in BRCA2 than background rates.

The BRCA2 polymorphic stop codon: stuff or nonsense?

BACKGROUND: Despite classification of the BRCA2c.9976A>T, p.(Lys3326Ter) variant as a polymorphism, it has been associated with increased risks of pancreatic, lung, oesophageal and breast cancer. METHODS: We have noticed multiple co-occurrences of the BRCA2 c.9976A>T variant with the pathogenic BRCA2c.6275_6276delTT frameshift mutation p.(Leu2092ProfsTer7) and using a cohort study have assessed if this might account for these tumour risk associations. RESULTS: We identified 52 families with BRCA2c.6275_6276delTT, all of which occur in cis with the BRCA2c.9976A>T variant allele as demonstrated by co-segregation in all family members tested. Of 3245 breast/ovarian cancer samples sequenced for BRCA2, only 43/3245 (1.3%) carried BRCA2 c.9976A>T alone, after excluding individuals with BRCA2c.6275_6276delTT (n=22) or other BRCA1 (n=3) or BRCA2 (n=2) pathogenic mutations. The resultant frequency (1.3%) after removal of co-occurring mutations is lower than the 1.7% and 1.67% frequencies from two control populations for BRCA2 c.9976A>T, but similar to the 1.39% seen in the Exome Aggregation Consortium database. We did not identify increased frequencies of oesophageal, pancreatic or lung cancer in families with just BRCA2 c.9976A>T using person-years at risk analysis. CONCLUSIONS: It is likely that the previous associations of increased cancer risks due to BRCA2c.9976A>T represent reporting bias and are contributed to because the variant is in LD with BRCA2c.6275_6276delTT.

Improving the uptake of predictive testing and colorectal screening in Lynch syndrome: a regional primary care survey.

Lynch syndrome (LS) is an autosomal dominant cancer predisposition syndrome with a 60-80% lifetime risk of colorectal cancer. We assessed the uptake of predictive testing and colorectal screening among first-degree relatives (FDRs) in LS families and explored novel methods for informing and engaging at-risk relatives. Uptake of predictive testing was explored using Kaplan-Meier analysis and engagement with colorectal screening was ascertained. A questionnaire was distributed to 216 general practitioners (GPs) of registered LS family members to determine their prior experience and opinion of an enhanced role. Of 591, 329 (55.7%) FDRs had undergone predictive testing. Uptake was significantly lower in males (p = 0.012) and individuals <25 years (p < 0.001). Mutation carriers were more likely to undergo colorectal screening than untested FDRs (97.2% vs 34.9%; P ≤ 0.0001). Of 216, 63 (29.2%) questionnaires were returned. Most GPs (55/63; 87.3%) were not confident to discuss the details of LS with patients and relatives. The main barriers were lack of knowledge and concerns about confidentiality. Compliance with colorectal screening is excellent following a mutation positive predictive test. Uptake of predictive testing could be substantially improved, particularly among males and younger age groups. GPs are unlikely to actively participate in communication with at-risk relatives without considerable support.

Colonoscopy screening compliance and outcomes in patients with Lynch syndrome.

AIM: Colonic surveillance reduces the lifetime risk of colorectal cancer in patients with Lynch syndrome (hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer) from 60 to 80% to 10% and confers a 7-year survival advantage. The British Society of Gastroenterologists recommends colonoscopy at least every 2 years from the age of 25. Currently in the UK, genetic diagnosis is made by a regional genetics service, and screening recommendations are made to the referring clinician. The aim of this study was to investigate compliance with and the effectiveness of large bowel surveillance in Lynch syndrome. METHOD: A retrospective longitudinal study of Lynch syndrome mutation carriers on the Regional Familial Colorectal Cancer Registry under and not under screening was conducted. To investigate screening compliance, patients were included if they were alive at the start of the study. Data were gathered on timeliness, quality and outcome of screening. To examine the effectiveness of screening, the cumulative incidence of colorectal cancer was estimated using Kaplan-Meier curves and the screened population compared with patients not being screened. RESULTS: A total of 227 Lynch syndrome mutation carriers were under screening at 26 hospitals. We assessed 439 colonoscopies for timeliness, of which 68% were compliant (interval < 27 months). Compliance on the 1 November 2011 was 87%. The cumulative incidence of colorectal cancer to the age of 70 was 25% (95% CI 17-32%) in the surveillance population and 81% (95% CI 78-84%) in 689 mutation-positive patients not being screened (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: Overall, 68% of colonoscopies were on time. The incidence of colorectal cancer was greatly reduced by screening but remained significant. Patients with Lynch syndrome need proactive surveillance management.

Tumour MLH1 promoter region methylation testing is an effective prescreen for Lynch Syndrome (HNPCC).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Lynch syndrome (LS) patients have DNA mismatch repair deficiency and up to 80% lifetime risk of colorectal cancer (CRC). Screening of mutation carriers reduces CRC incidence and mortality. Selection for constitutional mutation testing relies on family history (Amsterdam and Bethesda Guidelines) and tumour-derived biomarkers. Initial biomarker analysis uses mismatch repair protein immunohistochemistry and microsatellite instability. Abnormalities in either identify mismatch repair deficiency but do not differentiate sporadic epigenetic defects, due to MLH1 promoter region methylation (13% of CRCs) from LS (4% of CRCs). A diagnostic biomarker capable of making this distinction would be valuable. This study compared two biomarkers in tumours with mismatch repair deficiency; quantification of methylation of the MLH1 promoter region using a novel assay and BRAF c.1799T>A, p.(Val600Glu) mutation status in the identification of constitutional mutations. METHODS: Tumour DNA was extracted (formalin fixed, paraffin embedded, FFPE tissue) and pyrosequencing used to test for MLH1 promoter methylation and presence of the BRAF c.1799T>A, p.(Val600Glu) mutation 71 CRCs from individuals with pathogenic MLH1 mutations and 73 CRCs with sporadic MLH1 loss. Specificity and sensitivity was compared. FINDINGSS: Unmethylated MLH1 promoter: sensitivity 94.4% (95% CI 86.2% to 98.4%), specificity 87.7% (95% CI 77.9% to 94.2%), Wild-type BRAF (codon 600): sensitivity 65.8% (95% CI 53.7% to 76.5%), specificity 98.6% (95% CI 92.4% to 100.0%) for the identification of those with pathogenic MLH1 mutations. CONCLUSIONS: Quantitative MLH1 promoter region methylation using pyrosequencing is superior to BRAF codon 600 mutation status in identifying constitutional mutations in mismatch repair deficient tumours.

Is multiple SNP testing in BRCA2 and BRCA1 female carriers ready for use in clinical practice? Results from a large Genetic Centre in the UK.

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are major breast cancer susceptibility genes. Nineteen single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at 18 loci have been associated with breast cancer. We aimed to determine whether these predict breast cancer incidence in women with BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations. BRCA1/2 mutation carriers identified through the Manchester genetics centre between 1996 and 2011 were included. Using published odds ratios (OR) and risk allele frequencies, we calculated an overall breast cancer risk SNP score (OBRS) for each woman. The relationship between OBRS and age at breast cancer onset was investigated using the Cox proportional hazards model, and predictive ability assessed using Harrell's C concordance statistic. In BRCA1 mutation carriers we found no association between OBRS and age at breast cancer onset: OR for the lowest risk quintile compared to the highest was 1.20 (95% CI 0.82-1.75, Harrell's C = 0.54), but in BRCA2 mutation carriers the association was significant (OR for the lowest risk quintile relative to the highest was 0.47 (95% CI 0.33-0.69, Harrell's C = 0.59). The 18 validated breast cancer SNPs differentiate breast cancer risks between women with BRCA2 mutations, but not BRCA1. It may now be appropriate to use these SNPs to help women with BRCA2 mutations make maximally informed decisions about management options.

Systematic review of the impact of registration and screening on colorectal cancer incidence and mortality in familial adenomatous polyposis and Lynch syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The British Society of Gastroenterology recommends that all familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and Lynch syndrome (LS) families are screened in the context of a registry. This systematic review was performed to appraise the published evidence for registration and screening in relation to colorectal cancer (CRC) incidence and mortality. METHODS: Five electronic databases were searched using a combination of medical subject heading terms and free-text keywords. Titles and abstracts were scrutinized by two independent reviewers. Inclusion criteria were English-language studies describing CRC incidence and/or mortality in patients with FAP or LS, with comparison of either: screened and unscreened patients, or time periods before and after establishment of the registry. RESULTS: Of 4668 abstracts identified, 185 full-text articles were selected; 43 studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. No randomized clinical trial evidence was identified. For FAP, 33 of 33 studies described a significant reduction of CRC incidence and mortality with registration and screening. For LS, nine of ten studies described a reduction of CRC incidence and mortality with registration and screening. Five studies (FAP, 2; LS, 3) provided evidence for complete prevention of CRC-related deaths during surveillance. Clinical and statistical heterogeneity prevented pooling of data for meta-analysis. CONCLUSION: Studies consistently report that registration and screening result in a reduction of CRC incidence and mortality in patients with FAP and LS (level 2a evidence, grade B recommendation). Funding and managerial support for hereditary CRC registries should be made available.

Metachronous colorectal cancer risk in patients with a moderate family history.

AIM: Lifetime risk of a metachronous colorectal cancer (mCRC) is 0.6-3% following sporadic colorectal cancer (CRC) and 15-26% in Lynch syndrome. The lifetime incidence of CRC in individuals with moderate familial risk is 8-17%. Risk of mCRC is unknown. METHOD: A retrospective longitudinal study of the Regional Familial CRC Registry was performed. Patients who had at least one CRC were categorized as follows: moderate risk (n = 383), Lynch syndrome (n = 528) and average (population) risk (n = 409). The Kaplan-Meier estimate (1-KM) and the cumulative incidence function were used to calculate the risk of mCRC. The 1-KM gives the risk for individuals remaining at risk (alive) at a given time point and thus is useful for counselling. The cumulative incidence function gives the risk for the whole population. RESULTS: The 1-KM and the cumulative incidence function demonstrated that the risk of mCRC was significantly higher in moderate-risk patients compared with average (population)-risk patients (1-KM, P = 0.008; cumulative incidence function, P = 0.00097). However, the risk of mCRC was higher in patients with Lynch syndrome than in moderate-risk or average (population)-risk patients. The 1-KM in moderate-risk patients was 2.7%, 6.3% and 23.5% at 5, 10 and 20 years, respectively. In average (population)-risk patients, the 1-KM was 1.3%, 3.1% and 7.0% at 5, 10 and 20 years, and the cumulative incidence function was 0.3%, 0.6% and 2.4% at the same time points, respectively. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that the risk of mCRC is significantly higher in patients with a moderate family history of CRC than in those with an average (population) risk. This justifies proactive lifelong surveillance.

Uptake of risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy in women carrying a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation: evidence for lower uptake in women affected by breast cancer and older women.

BACKGROUND: Bilateral risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy (BRRSO) is the only effective way of reducing mortality from ovarian cancer. This study investigates uptake of BRRSO in 700 BRCA1/2 mutation carriers from Greater Manchester. METHODS: Dates of last follow-up and BRRSO were obtained, and the following variables were investigated: ovarian cancer risk/gene, age and breast cancer history. The date of the genetic mutation report was the initiation for Kaplan-Meier analysis. RESULTS: The uptake of BRRSO in BRCA1 mutation carriers was 54.5% (standard error 3.6%) at 5 years post testing compared with 45.5% (standard error 3.2%) in BRCA2 mutation carriers (P=0.045). The 40-59 years category showed the greatest uptake for BRRSO and uptake was significantly lower in the over 60 s (P<0.0001). Of the unaffected BRCA1 mutation carriers, 65% (standard error 5.1%) opted for surgery at 5 years post-testing compared with 41.1% (standard error 5.1%) in affected BRCA1 mutation carriers (P=0.045). CONCLUSION: The uptake of BRRSO is lower in women previously affected by breast cancer and in older women. As there is no efficient method for early detection of ovarian cancer, uptake should ideally be greater. Counselling should be offered to ensure BRCA1/2 mutation carriers make an informed decision about managing their ovarian cancer risk.

Familial breast cancer.

Since the localization and discovery of the first high-risk breast cancer (BC) genes in 1990, there has been a substantial progress in unravelling its familial component. Increasing numbers of women at risk of BC are coming forward requesting advice on their risk and what they can do about it. Three groups of genetic predisposition alleles have so far been identified with high-risk genes conferring 40-85% lifetime risk including BRCA1, BRCA2 and TP53. Moderate risk genes (20-40% risk) including PALB1, BRIP, ATM and CHEK2, and a host of low-risk common alleles identified largely through genome-wide association studies. Currently, only BRCA1, BRCA2 and TP53 are used in clinical practice on a wide scale, although testing of up to 50-100 gene loci may be possible in the future utilizing next-generation technology.

Genotype-phenotype correlation in colorectal polyposis.

Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) has been divided into three clinical subtypes: mild, classical and severe. This study aimed to investigate for a correlation between genotype and phenotype. A codon-specific survival difference is unknown. A retrospective longitudinal study of 492 patients on the Manchester Polyposis Registry was conducted. Patients were grouped according to genotypes: 0, unknown mutation; 1, adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) 0-178 (and 312-412 of exon 9); 2, APC >1550; 3, APC 179-1249; 4, APC 1250-1549; and 5, MutYH. Date of onset of polyposis, incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC), survival and actuarial time to surgery were calculated. Median age of onset of polyposis for genotype 0 was 20.3 years, genotype 1 35.6 years, genotype 2 32.2, genotype 3 15.9 years, and genotype 4 14.8 years (p < 0.0001). Age of onset of CRC was similar between genotypes. Median survival for genotype 0 was 56.6 years, genotype 1 74.9 years, genotype 2 61.0 years, genotype 3 63.0 years, genotype 4 48.1 years, and genotype 5 69.7 years (p = 0.003). This survival difference was also seen when patients who underwent screening and those who did not were analysed separately. Survival in the screened population was 53.9 years in genotype 4 and 72.9 years in genotype 3. Patients with genotype 4 (APC 1249-1549) have a significantly worse survival despite screening and early prophylactic surgery. This analysis supports a genotype-phenotype correlation. Patients with a mutation APC 1249-1549 develop polyposis at an early age and have a worse survival. Patients with a mutation APC 0-178 or 312-412 develop polyposis later and have an improved survival. This survival difference has not previously been documented.

Patient reported outcome measures in a cohort of patients at high risk of breast cancer treated by bilateral risk reducing mastectomy and breast reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: Many women with increased lifetime risk of developing breast cancer, due to pathogenic gene variants or family history, choose to undergo bilateral risk reducing mastectomies (BRRM). Patient reported outcome measures (PROMS) are an increasingly important part of informed consent but are little studied in women undergoing BRRM. METHODS: We used a validated PROMS tool for breast reconstruction (BREAST-Q) in 297 women who had BRRM and breast reconstruction, 81% of whom had no malignancy (Benign Group, BG) and 19% in whom a perioperative breast cancer was diagnosed (Cancer Group, CG). 128 women also completed a Hospital Anxiety & Depression Score (HADS) questionnaire to test if preoperative HADS score could predict PROMS outcomes. RESULTS: Women in the CG had lower PROMS scores for satisfaction with their breasts, nipple reconstruction and sexual wellbeing. Both groups reported equal satisfaction with BRRM outcome and psychosocial well-being. Physical well-being PROMS of the abdomen and chest were high in women in both groups as were scores for satisfaction with the care they received. The CG group reported suboptimal quality of patient information. A higher presurgical HADS anxiety score predicted less favourable postoperative psychosocial well-being despite similar levels of satisfaction with aesthetic outcome. CONCLUSION: We show a high degree of patient reported satisfaction by woman undergoing BRRM and reconstruction. There was a negative association with a cancer diagnosis on quality of life PROMS and higher preoperative anxiety levels negatively affected postoperative psychosocial well-being. These important findings should be part of the informed consent process during preoperative counselling.

Menopausal symptoms and bone health in women undertaking risk reducing bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy: significant bone health issues in those not taking HRT.

BACKGROUND: Women at high ovarian cancer risk, especially those with mutations in BRCA1/BRCA2, are encouraged to undergo bilateral risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy (BRRSPO) prior to the natural menopause. The decision to use HRT to cover the period of oestrogen deprivation up to 50 years of age is difficult because of balancing the considerations of breast cancer risk, bone and cardiovascular health. METHODS: We reviewed by questionnaire 289 women after BRRSPO aged ≤48 years because of high ovarian cancer risk; 212 (73%) of women responded. RESULTS: Previous HRT users (n=67) had significantly worse endocrine symptom scores than 67 current users (P=0.006). A total of 123 (58%) of women had ≥24 months of oestrogen deprivation <50 years with 78 (37%) never taking HRT. Bone density (DXA) evaluations were available on 119 (56%) women: bone loss with a T score of ≤-1.0 was present in 5 out of 31 (16%) women with no period of oestrogen deprivation <50 years compared with 37 out of 78 (47%) of those with ≥24 months of oestrogen deprivation (P=0.03). INTERPRETATION: Women undergoing BRRSPO <50 years should be counselled concerning the risks/benefits of HRT, taking into consideration the benefits on symptoms, bone health and cardiovascular health, and that the risks of breast cancer from oestrogen-only HRT appear to be relatively small.

Evaluation of the XRCC1 gene as a phenotypic modifier in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers. Results from the consortium of investigators of modifiers of BRCA1/BRCA2.

BACKGROUND: Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes involved in DNA repair are good candidates to be tested as phenotypic modifiers for carriers of mutations in the high-risk susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. The base excision repair (BER) pathway could be particularly interesting given the relation of synthetic lethality that exists between one of the components of the pathway, PARP1, and both BRCA1 and BRCA2. In this study, we have evaluated the XRCC1 gene that participates in the BER pathway, as phenotypic modifier of BRCA1 and BRCA2. METHODS: Three common SNPs in the gene, c.-77C>T (rs3213245) p.Arg280His (rs25489) and p.Gln399Arg (rs25487) were analysed in a series of 701 BRCA1 and 576 BRCA2 mutation carriers. RESULTS: An association was observed between p.Arg280His-rs25489 and breast cancer risk for BRCA2 mutation carriers, with rare homozygotes at increased risk relative to common homozygotes (hazard ratio: 22.3, 95% confidence interval: 14.3-34, P<0.001). This association was further tested in a second series of 4480 BRCA1 and 3016 BRCA2 mutation carriers from the Consortium of Investigators of Modifiers of BRCA1 and BRCA2. CONCLUSIONS AND INTERPRETATION: No evidence of association was found when the larger series was analysed which lead us to conclude that none of the three SNPs are significant modifiers of breast cancer risk for mutation carriers.

Risk of breast cancer in male BRCA2 carriers.

The risk of breast cancer for unaffected men who test positive for a BRCA2 mutation is based on very few retrospective studies. We have used both retrospective and prospective analysis in 321 families with pathogenic BRCA2 mutations. Three breast cancers occurred in male first-degree relatives after family ascertainment in 4140 years of follow-up suggesting a risk of breast cancer to 80 years of 8.9%. A second analysis excluding index cases identified 16 breast cancers in 905 first-degree male relatives on which Kaplan-Meier analysis was performed after assigning carrier status. This analysis confirmed that breast cancer risk in men was 7.1% (SE 5.2-8.6%) by age 70 years and 8.4% (SE 6.2-10.6%) by age 80 years.

The impact of screening and genetic registration on mortality and colorectal cancer incidence in familial adenomatous polyposis.

BACKGROUND: Regular colonic surveillance of familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) patients is necessary to ensure appropriate prophylactic surgery is performed before colorectal cancer (CRC) develops. Polyposis Registries have been established to coordinate screening programmes. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of screening and of the formation of the Registry on survival, incidence of CRC and age at onset of CRC, in FAP patients. METHODS: Patients on the Manchester Polyposis Registry were categorised according to their mode of presentation; screening or symptomatic, and survival time from birth was calculated for each patient (n=353). The effect of the formation of the Registry was assessed by comparing survival times from birth for patients diagnosed in the 20 years before the establishment of the Registry, to patients diagnosed in the 20 years since the formation of the Registry (n=273). RESULTS: This study demonstrated that survival was increased from 57.8 years to 70.4 years (p<0.001) by screening, and from 58.1 years to 69.6 years (p=0.007) following establishment of the Polyposis Registry. The incidence of CRC was reduced from 43.5% to 3.8% by screening, and from 28.7% to 14.0% following establishment of the Polyposis Registry. Although direct causation between improved survival and reduced CRC incidence, and establishment of the Registry cannot be proven, an association has been demonstrated. Colorectal cancer was found to develop, on average, 16 years later in the screening population. CONCLUSION: A regular systematic large bowel screening programme, managed by a Polyposis Registry, significantly improves the prognosis of FAP.

Long-term outcomes of breast cancer in women aged 30 years or younger, based on family history, pathology and BRCA1/BRCA2/TP53 status.

BACKGROUND: There are relatively few articles addressing long-term follow-up in women with breast cancer at very young ages. METHODS: We have updated and extended our population-based analysis of breast cancer diagnosed at the age < or =30 years in North-west England to include an extra 15 patients with mutation testing in BRCA1, BRCA2 and TP53, with 115 of 288 consecutive cases being tested. Kaplan-Meier curves were generated to assess overall survival, contralateral breast cancer and other second primaries. RESULTS: Survival analysis of all 288 patients showed poor overall survival, although this improved from a 15-year survival of only 46% in those diagnosed between 1980 and 1989 to 58% in those diagnosed between 1990 and 1997 (P=0.05). Contralateral breast cancer rates were at a steady rate of 0.6 per 1000, although the rates in mutation carriers were approximately 2 per 1000. Altogether, 16 BRCA1, 9 BRCA2 and 6 TP53 mutations have now been found among the 115 cases on whom DNA analysis has been performed. BRCAPRO accurately predicted the number of carriers for BRCA1 and BRCA2 and was sensitive and specific at the 10 and 20% threshold, respectively. However, BRCAPRO did not seem to give any weight to DCIS, which accounted for two BRCA1 carriers and three TP53 carriers and overpredicted mutations at the high end of the spectrum, with only 6 of 11 (54%) with a >90% probability having identifiable BRCA1/2 mutations. INTERPRETATION: Rates of new primaries are predicted to some extent by mutation status. BRCAPRO is useful at determining those patients aged < or =30 years to be tested.