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1.
Anal Chem ; 96(22): 9177-9184, 2024 Jun 04.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38780285

RESUMO

We describe micro- and nanoelectrode array analysis with an automated version of the array microcell method (AMCM). Characterization of hundreds of electrodes, with diameters ranging from 100 nm to 2 µm, was carried out by using AMCM voltammetry and chronoamperometry. The influence of solvent evaporation on mass transport in the AMCM pipette and the resultant electrochemical response were investigated, with experimental results supported by finite element method simulations. We also describe the application of AMCM to high-throughput single-entity electrochemistry in measurements of stochastic nanoparticle impacts. Collision experiments recorded 3270 single-particle events from 671 electrodes. Data collection parameters were optimized to enable these experiments to be completed in a few hours, and the collision transient sizes were analyzed with a U-Net deep learning model. Elucidation of collision transient sizes by histograms from these experiments was enhanced due to the large sample size possible with AMCM.

2.
Magn Reson Med ; 91(6): 2431-2442, 2024 Jun.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38368618

RESUMO

PURPOSE: We report the design concept and fabrication of MRI phantoms, containing blocks of aligned microcapillaires that can be stacked into larger arrays to construct diameter distribution phantoms or fractured, to create a "powder-averaged" emulsion of randomly oriented blocks for vetting or calibrating advanced MRI methods, that is, diffusion tensor imaging, AxCaliber MRI, MAP-MRI, and multiple pulsed field gradient or double diffusion-encoded microstructure imaging methods. The goal was to create a susceptibility-matched microscopically anisotropic but macroscopically isotropic phantom with a ground truth diameter that could be used to vet advanced diffusion methods for diameter determination in fibrous tissues. METHODS: Two-photon polymerization, a novel three-dimensional printing method is used to fabricate blocks of capillaries. Double diffusion encoding methods were employed and analyzed to estimate the expected MRI diameter. RESULTS: Susceptibility-matched microcapillary blocks or modules that can be assembled into large-scale MRI phantoms have been fabricated and measured using advanced diffusion methods, resulting in microscopic anisotropy and random orientation. CONCLUSION: This phantom can vet and calibrate various advanced MRI methods and multiple pulsed field gradient or diffusion-encoded microstructure imaging methods. We demonstrated that two double diffusion encoding methods underestimated the ground truth diameter.


Assuntos
Imagem de Tensor de Difusão , Imageamento por Ressonância Magnética , Capilares , Imagens de Fantasmas , Anisotropia , Impressão Tridimensional , Imagem de Difusão por Ressonância Magnética/métodos
3.
Langmuir ; 2024 Jul 01.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38949567

RESUMO

Surface texturing of manufactured products tailors their properties, such as friction, adhesion, biocompatibility, or fluid interactions. However, advancements in this area are largely the result of trial-and-effort testing and generally lack a science-guided framework for determining the surface topography that will optimize performance. The present investigation explores grayscale electron-beam lithography as a means to create multiscale surface patterns to control surface performance. Here, we created and characterized a set of surface textures on a silicon wafer; the textures were superpositions of sine waves of varying wavelengths and amplitudes. First, the multiscale topography of the patterned surface was characterized, using profilometry and atomic force microscopy, to understand its fidelity to the designed-in pattern. The results of this analysis demonstrated how grayscale lithography accurately controlled the lateral size of features but was less precise on the vertical height of the surface, and also introduced inherent roughness below the scale of patterning. Second, a micromechanical tester was used to characterize the adhesion of the surfaces with large-scale polished silicon spheres. The results showed that adhesion could be tailored, with significant contribution from all of the designed-in length scales of topography. The strength of adhesion did not correlate with conventional roughness parameters but could be accurately modeled using simple numerical integration. Taken together, this investigation demonstrates the promise and challenges of grayscale e-beam lithography with multiscale patterns as a method for the tailoring of surface performance.

4.
Langmuir ; 40(13): 7008-7020, 2024 Apr 02.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38525827

RESUMO

The polymer brush architecture of the end-tethered polymer molecules is one of the most widely used efficient methods to regulate interfacial interactions in colloidal systems found in live matter and manufactured materials. Emerging applications of polymer brush structures require solutions to new tasks in the control of interfacial interactions. The rapid development of live cell manufacturing relies on scalable and efficient cell harvesting methods. Stimuli-responsive surfaces made of surface-grafted poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) can bind and detach the adherent cell upon changes in temperature and have been used for cell growth and harvesting. The applications are limited by the requirement to satisfy a range of PNIPAM coating characteristics that depend on the dimensions of the integrin complex in the cell membrane and the basal surface. The analysis of the microstructured surfaces, when adhesive and disjoining functions of the microdomains are decoupled, shows that many limitations of PNIPAM one-component coatings can be avoided by using a much broader range of structural characteristics of the microstructured interfaces composed of alternating disjoining PNIPAM domains and adhesive polymeric domains with cell-affinity functional groups. Temperature-controlled reversible adhesion to such microstructured interfaces is studied here experimentally with model systems of solid spherical particles and by employing simulations for solid and soft membranes interacting with the microstructured surfaces to mimic interactions with soft and solid disk-like particles.

5.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A ; 118(7)2021 02 16.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-33531347

RESUMO

Cell-cell adhesions are often subjected to mechanical strains of different rates and magnitudes in normal tissue function. However, the rate-dependent mechanical behavior of individual cell-cell adhesions has not been fully characterized due to the lack of proper experimental techniques and therefore remains elusive. This is particularly true under large strain conditions, which may potentially lead to cell-cell adhesion dissociation and ultimately tissue fracture. In this study, we designed and fabricated a single-cell adhesion micro tensile tester (SCAµTT) using two-photon polymerization and performed displacement-controlled tensile tests of individual pairs of adherent epithelial cells with a mature cell-cell adhesion. Straining the cytoskeleton-cell adhesion complex system reveals a passive shear-thinning viscoelastic behavior and a rate-dependent active stress-relaxation mechanism mediated by cytoskeleton growth. Under low strain rates, stress relaxation mediated by the cytoskeleton can effectively relax junctional stress buildup and prevent adhesion bond rupture. Cadherin bond dissociation also exhibits rate-dependent strengthening, in which increased strain rate results in elevated stress levels at which cadherin bonds fail. This bond dissociation becomes a synchronized catastrophic event that leads to junction fracture at high strain rates. Even at high strain rates, a single cell-cell junction displays a remarkable tensile strength to sustain a strain as much as 200% before complete junction rupture. Collectively, the platform and the biophysical understandings in this study are expected to build a foundation for the mechanistic investigation of the adaptive viscoelasticity of the cell-cell junction.


Assuntos
Junções Intercelulares/metabolismo , Estresse Mecânico , Caderinas/metabolismo , Adesão Celular , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , Citoesqueleto/metabolismo , Elasticidade , Humanos , Junções Intercelulares/química , Viscosidade
6.
Angew Chem Int Ed Engl ; : e202405634, 2024 May 14.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38742923

RESUMO

In vivo electrochemistry in small brain regions or synapses requires nanoelectrodes with long straight tips for submicron scale measurements. Nanoelectrodes can be fabricated using a Nanoscribe two-photon printer, but annealed tips curl if they are long and thin. We propose a new pulling-force strategy to fabricate a straight carbon nanoneedle structure. A micron-width bridge is printed between two blocks. The annealed structure shrinks during pyrolysis, and the blocks create a pulling force to form a long, thin, and straight carbon bridge. Parameterization study and COMSOL modeling indicate changes in the block size, bridge size and length affect the pulling force and bridge shrinkage. Electrodes were printed on niobium wires, insulated with aluminum oxide, and the bridge cut with focused ion beam (FIB) to expose the nanoneedle tip. Annealed needle diameters ranged from 400 nm to 5.25 µm and length varied from 50.5 µm to 146 µm. The electrochemical properties are similar to glassy carbon, with good performance for dopamine detection with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Nanoelectrodes enable biological applications, such as dopamine detection in a specific Drosophila brain region. Long and thin nanoneedles are generally useful for other applications such as cellular sensing, drug delivery, or gas sensing.

7.
Adv Funct Mater ; 33(3)2023 Jan 16.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36817407

RESUMO

Two-photon polymerization (TPP) has been widely used to create 3D micro- and nanoscale scaffolds for biological and mechanobiological studies, which often require the mechanical characterization of the TPP fabricated structures. To satisfy physiological requirements, most of the mechanical characterizations need to be conducted in liquid. However, previous characterizations of TPP fabricated structures were all conducted in air due to the limitation of conventional micro- and nanoscale mechanical testing methods. In this study, we report a new experimental method for testing the mechanical properties of TPP-printed microfibers in liquid. The experiments show that the mechanical behaviors of the microfibers tested in liquid are significantly different from those tested in air. By controlling the TPP writing parameters, the mechanical properties of the microfibers can be tailored over a wide range to meet a variety of mechanobiology applications. In addition, it is found that, in water, the plasticly deformed microfibers can return to their pre-deformed shape after tensile strain is released. The shape recovery time is dependent on the size of microfibers. The experimental method represents a significant advancement in mechanical testing of TPP fabricated structures and may help release the full potential of TPP fabricated 3D tissue scaffold for mechanobiological studies.

8.
Biomed Microdevices ; 24(4): 33, 2022 10 08.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36207557

RESUMO

We previously reported a single-cell adhesion micro tensile tester (SCAµTT) fabricated from IP-S photoresin with two-photon polymerization (TPP) for investigating the mechanics of a single cell-cell junction under defined tensile loading. A major limitation of the platform is the autofluorescence of IP-S, the photoresin for TPP fabrication, which significantly increases background signal and makes fluorescent imaging of stretched cells difficult. In this study, we report the design and fabrication of a new SCAµTT platform that mitigates autofluorescence and demonstrate its capability in imaging a single cell pair as its mutual junction is stretched. By employing a two-material design using IP-S and IP-Visio, a photoresin with reduced autofluorescence, we show a significant reduction in autofluorescence of the platform. Further, by integrating apertures onto the substrate with a gold coating, the influence of autofluorescence on imaging is almost completely mitigated. With this new platform, we demonstrate the ability to image a pair of epithelial cells as they are stretched up to 250% strain, allowing us to observe junction rupture and F-actin retraction while simultaneously recording the accumulation of over 800 kPa of stress in the junction. The platform and methodology presented here can potentially enable detailed investigation of the mechanics of and mechanotransduction in cell-cell junctions and improve the design of other TPP platforms in mechanobiology applications.


Assuntos
Actinas , Mecanotransdução Celular , Actinas/metabolismo , Ouro , Junções Intercelulares/metabolismo , Polimerização
9.
Langmuir ; 37(8): 2667-2676, 2021 Mar 02.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-33591763

RESUMO

The geometric structure of carbon electrodes affects their electrochemical behavior, and large-scale surface roughness leads to thin layer electrochemistry when analyte is trapped in pores. However, the current response is always a mixture of both thin layer and diffusion processes. Here, we systematically explore the effects of thin layer electrochemistry and diffusion at carbon fiber (CF), carbon nanospike (CNS), and carbon nanotube yarn (CNTY) electrodes. The cyclic voltammetry (CV) response to the surface-insensitive redox couple Ru(NH3)63+/2+ is tested, so the geometric structure is the only factor. At CFs, the reaction is diffusion-controlled because the surface is smooth. CNTY electrodes have gaps between nanotubes that are about 10 µm deep, comparable with the diffusion layer thickness. CNTY electrodes show clear thin layer behavior due to trapping effects, with more symmetrical peaks and ΔEp closer to zero. CNS electrodes have submicrometer scale roughness, so their CV shape is mostly due to diffusion, not thin layer effects. However, even the 10% contribution of thin layer behavior reduces the peak separation by 30 mV, indicating ΔEp is influenced not only by electron transfer kinetics but also by surface geometry. A new simulation model is developed to quantitate the thin layer and diffusion contributions that explains the CV shape and peak separation for CNS and CNTY electrodes, providing insight on the impact of scan rate and surface structure size. Thus, this study provides key understanding of thin layer and diffusion processes at different surface structures and will enable rational design of electrodes with thin layer electrochemistry.

10.
Nano Lett ; 20(9): 6831-6836, 2020 09 09.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-32813535

RESUMO

Direct laser writing, a nano 3D-printing approach, has enabled fabrication of customized carbon microelectrode sensors for neurochemical detection. However, to detect neurotransmitters in tiny biological organisms or synapses, submicrometer nanoelectrodes are required. In this work, we used 3D printing to fabricate carbon nanoelectrode sensors. Customized structures were 3D printed and then pyrolyzed, resulting in free-standing carbon electrodes with nanotips. The nanoelectrodes were insulated with atomic layer deposition of Al2O3 and the nanotips were polished by a focused ion beam to form 600 nm disks. Using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry, the electrodes successfully detected stimulated dopamine in the adult fly brain, demonstrating that they are robust and sensitive enough to use in tiny biological systems. This work is the first demonstration of 3D printing to fabricate free-standing carbon nanoelectrode sensors and will enable batch fabrication of customized nanoelectrode sensors with precise control and excellent reproducibility.


Assuntos
Carbono , Neurotransmissores , Microeletrodos , Impressão Tridimensional , Reprodutibilidade dos Testes
11.
Nat Mater ; 17(4): 318-322, 2018 04.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29531368

RESUMO

There is a demand for the manufacture of two-dimensional (2D) materials with high-quality single crystals of large size. Usually, epitaxial growth is considered the method of choice 1 in preparing single-crystalline thin films, but it requires single-crystal substrates for deposition. Here we present a different approach and report the synthesis of single-crystal-like monolayer graphene films on polycrystalline substrates. The technological realization of the proposed method resembles the Czochralski process and is based on the evolutionary selection 2 approach, which is now realized in 2D geometry. The method relies on 'self-selection' of the fastest-growing domain orientation, which eventually overwhelms the slower-growing domains and yields a single-crystal continuous 2D film. Here we have used it to synthesize foot-long graphene films at rates up to 2.5 cm h-1 that possess the quality of a single crystal. We anticipate that the proposed approach could be readily adopted for the synthesis of other 2D materials and heterostructures.

12.
Carbon N Y ; 155: 250-257, 2019 Dec.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-31588146

RESUMO

Carbon nanomaterials are used to improve electrodes for neurotransmitter detection, but what properties are important for maximizing those effects? In this work, we compare a newer form of graphene, carbon nanospikes (CNSs), with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) grown on wires and carbon fibers (CFs). CNS electrodes have a short, dense, defect-filled surface that produces remarkable electrochemical properties, much better than CNTs or CFs. The CNS surface roughness is 5.5 times greater than glassy carbon, while CNTs enhance roughness only 1.8-fold. D/G ratios are higher for CNS electrodes than CNT electrodes, an indication of more defect sites. For cyclic voltammetry of dopamine and ferricyanide, CNSs have both higher currents and smaller ΔEp values than CNTs and CFs. CNS electrodes also have a very low resistance to charge transfer. With fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV), CNS electrodes have enhanced current density for dopamine and cationic neurotransmitters due to increased adsorption to edge plane sites. This study establishes that not all carbon nanomaterials are equally advantageous for dopamine electrochemistry, but that short, dense nanomaterials that add defect sites provide improved current and electron transfer. CNSs are simple to mass fabricate on a variety of substrates and thus could be a favorable material for neurotransmitter sensing.

13.
Electrophoresis ; 39(3): 438-444, 2018 02.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28504823

RESUMO

A fundamental problem with efficiency in capillary action driven planar chromatography results from diminishing flow rates as development proceeds, giving rise to molecular diffusion related band dispersion for most sample types. Overpressure and electrokinetic means to speed flow have been used successfully in TLC. We explore the use of centrifugal force (CF) to drive flow for reduced-dimension planar platforms (ultra-TLC, low micrometer features, and nano-TLC, nanoscale features). The silicon wafer platforms have two forms of continuous 2D arrays created by either photolithography or metal dewetting followed by deep reactive ion etching and coated with porous SiO2 . The flow pattern is unusual with co-planar flows above and within the arrays. The effects of parameters such as spin rate, solvent type, and surface character on flow rates is established and can be substantially greater than capillary action flow. Using fluorescent dyes, we investigate retardation factors and chromatographic plate height; the latter falls in the low to sub-micrometer range. To the best of our knowledge, we demonstrate the first analytical separations performed in pillar arrays using CF to augment solvent flow.


Assuntos
Centrifugação/métodos , Cromatografia em Camada Fina/métodos , Cromatografia em Camada Fina/instrumentação , Difusão , Corantes Fluorescentes/química , Nanoestruturas , Porosidade , Dióxido de Silício/química , Solventes/química , Propriedades de Superfície
14.
Angew Chem Int Ed Engl ; 57(43): 14255-14259, 2018 10 22.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30207021

RESUMO

Implantable neural microsensors have significantly advanced neuroscience research, but the geometry of most probes is limited by the fabrication methods. Therefore, new methods are needed for batch-manufacturing with high reproducibility. Herein, a novel method is developed using two-photon nanolithography followed by pyrolysis for fabrication of free-standing microelectrodes with a carbon electroactive surface. 3D-printed spherical and conical electrodes were characterized with slow scan cyclic voltammetry (CV). With fast-scan CV, the electrodes showed low dopamine LODs of 11±1 nm (sphere) and 10±2 nm (cone), high sensitivity to multiple neurochemicals, and high reproducibility. Spherical microelectrodes were used to detect dopamine in a brain slice and in vivo, demonstrating they are robust enough for tissue implantation. This work is the first demonstration of 3D-printing of free-standing carbon electrodes; and the method is promising for batch fabrication of customized, implantable neural sensors.


Assuntos
Carbono/química , Microeletrodos , Neurotransmissores/análise , Impressão Tridimensional , Técnicas Eletroquímicas , Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura , Análise Espectral Raman
15.
Anal Chem ; 89(11): 6272-6276, 2017 06 06.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28489357

RESUMO

Sensitive detection of harmful chemicals in industrial applications is pertinent to safety. In this work, we demonstrate the use of a sensitive silicon microcantilever (MC) system with a porous silicon oxide layer deposited on the active side of the MCs that have been mechanically manipulated to increase sensitivity. Included is the evaluation of porous silicon oxide present on different geometries of MCs and exposed to varying concentrations of hydrogen fluoride in humid air. Profilometry and the signal generated by the stress-induced porous silicon oxide (PSO) coating and bending of the MC were used as methods of evaluation.

16.
Electrophoresis ; 38(2): 361-367, 2017 01.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27515468

RESUMO

Simplified lab-on-a-chip techniques are desirable for quick and efficient detection of analytes of interest in the field. The following work involves the use of deterministic pillar arrays on the micro-scale as a platform to separate compounds, and the use of Ag colloid within the arrays as a source of increased signal via surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). One problem traditionally seen with SERS surfaces containing Ag colloid is oxidation; however, our platforms are superhydrophobic, reducing the amount of oxidation taking place on the surface of the Ag colloid. This work includes the successful separation and SERS detection of a fluorescent dye compounds (resorufin and sulforhodamine 640), fluorescent anti-tumor drugs (Adriamycin and Daunomycin), and purine and pyrimidine bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine, hypoxanthine, and thymine).


Assuntos
Cromatografia em Camada Fina/métodos , Prata/química , Análise Espectral Raman/métodos , Cromatografia em Camada Fina/instrumentação , Corantes Fluorescentes/química , Corantes Fluorescentes/isolamento & purificação , Interações Hidrofóbicas e Hidrofílicas , Análise Espectral Raman/instrumentação
17.
Phys Rev Lett ; 118(26): 266101, 2017 Jun 30.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28707916

RESUMO

We investigated the effect of out-of-plane crumpling on the mechanical response of graphene membranes. In our experiments, stress was applied to graphene membranes using pressurized gas while the strain state was monitored through two complementary techniques: interferometric profilometry and Raman spectroscopy. By comparing the data obtained through these two techniques, we determined the geometric hidden area which quantifies the crumpling strength. While the devices with hidden area ∼0% obeyed linear mechanics with biaxial stiffness 428±10 N/m, specimens with hidden area in the range 0.5%-1.0% were found to obey an anomalous nonlinear Hooke's law with an exponent ∼0.1.

18.
Anal Chem ; 88(17): 8741-8, 2016 09 06.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-27510171

RESUMO

This work presents the retention capabilities and surface area enhancement of highly ordered, high-aspect-ratio, open-platform, two-dimensional (2D) pillar arrays when coated with a thin layer of porous silicon oxide (PSO). Photolithographically prepared pillar arrays were coated with 50-250 nm of PSO via plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition and then functionalized with either octadecyltrichlorosilane or n-butyldimethylchlorosilane. Theoretical calculations indicate that a 50 nm layer of PSO increases the surface area of a pillar nearly 120-fold. Retention capabilities were tested by observing capillary-action-driven development under various conditions, as well as by running one-dimensional separations on varying thicknesses of PSO. Increasing the thickness of PSO on an array clearly resulted in greater retention of the analyte(s) in question in both experiments. In culmination, a two-dimensional separation of fluorescently derivatized amines was performed to further demonstrate the capabilities of these fabricated platforms.

19.
Analyst ; 141(4): 1239-45, 2016 Feb 21.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-26824088

RESUMO

An advantage of separation platforms based on deterministic micro- and nano-fabrications, relative to traditional systems based on packed beds of particles, is the exquisite control of all morphological parameters. For example, with planar platforms based on lithographically-prepared pillar arrays, the size, shape, height, geometric arrangement, and inter pillar gaps can be independently adjusted. Since the inter pillar gap is expected to be important in determining resistance to mass transfer in the mobile phase as well as the flow rate, which influences the mass transfer effect and axial diffusion, we herein study the effect of reducing inter pillar gaps on capillary action-based flow and band dispersion. Atomic layer deposition is used to narrow the gap between the pillars for photo-lithographically defined pillar arrays. The plate height of gap-adjusted arrays is modeled based on predicted and observed flow rates. A reduction in the flow rate with smaller gaps hinders the efficiency in the modeled case and is correlated with actual separations. A conclusion is drawn that simultaneously reducing both the gap and the pillar diameter is the best approach in terms of improving the chromatographic efficiency.

20.
Anal Chem ; 87(13): 6814-21, 2015 Jul 07.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-26041094

RESUMO

The unique properties associated with beryllium metal ensures the continued use in many industries despite the documented health and environmental risks. While engineered safeguards and personal protective equipment can reduce risks associated with working with the metal, it has been mandated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) that the workplace air and surfaces must be monitored for toxic levels. While many methods have been developed to monitor levels down to the low µg/m(3), the complexity and expense of these methods have driven the investigation into alternate methodologies. Herein, we use a combination of the previously developed fluorescence Be(II) ion detection reagent, 10-hydroxybenzo[h]quinoline (HBQ), with an optical field enhanced silicon nanopillar array, creating a new surface immobilized (si-HBQ) platform. The si-HBQ platform allows the positive control of the reagent for demonstrated reusability and a pillar diameter based tunable enhancement. Furthermore, native silicon nanopillars are overcoated with thin layers of porous silicon oxide to develop an analytical platform capable of a 0.0006 µg/L limit of detection (LOD) using sub-µL sample volumes. Additionally, we demonstrate a method to multiplex the introduction of the sample to the platform, with minimal 5.2% relative standard deviation (RSD) at 0.1 µg/L, to accommodate the potentially large number of samples needed to maintain industrial compliance. The minimal sample and reagent volumes and lack of complex and highly specific instrumentation, as well as positive control and reusability of traditionally consumable reagents, create a platform that is accessible and economically advantageous.

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