Diversification of PAR signaling through receptor crosstalk.

Protease activated receptors (PARs) are among the first receptors shown to transactivate other receptors: noticeably, these interactions are not limited to members of the same family, but involve receptors as diverse as receptor kinases, prostanoid receptors, purinergic receptors and ionic channels among others. In this review, we will focus on the evidence for PAR interactions with members of their own family, as well as with other types of receptors. We will discuss recent evidence as well as what we consider as emerging areas to explore; from the signalling pathways triggered, to the physiological and pathological relevance of these interactions, since this additional level of molecular cross-talk between receptors and signaling pathways is only beginning to be explored and represents a novel mechanism providing diversity to receptor function and play important roles in physiology and disease.

Thrombin induces Ca2+-dependent glutamate release from RPE cells mediated by PLC/PKC and reverse Na+/Ca2+ exchange.

Purpose: We analyzed the molecular mechanisms leading to glutamate release from rat primary cultures of RPE cells, under isosmotic conditions. Thrombin has been shown to stimulate glutamate release from astrocytes and retinal glia; however, the effect of thrombin on glutamate release from RPE cells has not been examined. Our previous work showed that upon the alteration of the blood-retina barrier, the serine protease thrombin could contribute to the transformation, proliferation, and migration of RPE cells. In this condition, elevated extracellular glutamate causes neuronal loss in many retinal disorders, including glaucoma, ischemia, diabetic retinopathy, and inherited photoreceptor degeneration. Methods: Primary cultures of rat RPE cells were preloaded with 1 µCi/ml 3H-glutamate in Krebs Ringer Bicarbonate (KRB) buffer for 30 min at 37 °C. Cells were rinsed and super-perfused with 1 ml/min KRB for 15 min. Stable release was reached at the 7th minute, and on the 8th minute, fresh KRB containing stimuli was added. Results: This study showed for the first time that thrombin promotes specific, dose-dependent glutamate release from RPE cells, induced by the activation of protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR-1). This effect was found to depend on the Ca2+ increase mediated by the phospholipase C-ß (PLC-ß) and protein kinase C (PKC) pathways, as well as by the reverse activity of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger. Conclusions: Given the intimate contact of the RPE with the photoreceptor outer segments, diffusion of RPE-released glutamate could contribute to the excitotoxic death of retinal neurons, and the development of thrombin-induced eye pathologies.

Thrombin promotes the expression of Ccnd1 gene in RPE cells through the activation of converging signaling pathways.

The breakdown of the blood-retina barrier exposes retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) to serum components, thrombin among them. In addition to coagulation, thrombin acting through Protease-Activated Receptors (PARs 1-4) participates in a number of processes including cell proliferation, transformation, and migration. The purpose of this study was to identify interacting signaling pathways by which the activation of PAR1 by thrombin triggers cyclin D1 gene (Ccnd1) expression and the proliferation of RPE cells, characteristic of proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR). Our results demonstrate that thrombin induces the expression of the c-fos gene (c-fos), the activation of the (fos/jun) AP-1 site and the expression of Ccnd1, in precise correlation with the activation of CREB. Although the expression of both, c-fos and Ccnd1 requires the activation of conventional PKC isoforms and PI3K, downstream signaling from PI3K differs for both genes. Whereas the expression of c-fos requires PI3K-induced PDK1/Akt activity, that of Ccnd1 is mediated by PDK1-independent PKCζ signaling. Additionally, CREB activation may contribute to the induction of Ccnd1 expression through binding to the Ca/CRE element in the Ccnd1 gene promoter. Since cyclin D1 is a key regulator of cell cycle G1/S phase progression essential for proliferation, these findings further strengthen the critical involvement of thrombin in the development of proliferative retinopathies and may provide pharmacologic targets for the prevention or treatment of these diseases.

Nxnl2 splicing results in dual functions in neuronal cell survival and maintenance of cell integrity.

The rod-derived cone viability factors, RdCVF and RdCVF2, have potential therapeutical interests for the treatment of inherited photoreceptor degenerations. In the mouse lacking Nxnl2, the gene encoding RdCVF2, the progressive decline of the visual performance of the cones in parallel with their degeneration, arises due to the loss of trophic support from RdCVF2. In contrary, the progressive loss of rod visual function of the Nxnl2-/- mouse results from a decrease in outer segment length, mediated by a cell autonomous mechanism involving the putative thioredoxin protein RdCVF2L, the second spliced product of the Nxnl2 gene. This novel signaling mechanism extends to olfaction as shown by the progressive impairment of olfaction in aged Nxnl2-/- mice and the protection of olfactory neurons by RdCVF2. This study shows that Nxnl2 is a bi-functional gene involved in the maintenance of both the function and the viability of sensory neurons.

The PKC-ζ pseudosubstrate peptide induces glutamate release from retinal pigment epithelium cells through kinase- independent activation of Best1.

AIMS: The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a highly specialized cell monolayer, that plays a key role in the maintenance of photoreceptor function and the blood-retina barrier (BRB). In this study, we found that a myristoylated pseudosubstrate of PKC-ζ (PKCζ PS), considered as a PKC-ζ inhibitor, plays a distinct role in RPE. MAIN METHODS: We demonstrated that PKCζ PS stimulates the release of Glutamate (Glu) using in vitro3H-Glutamate release experiments. By western blot, kinase assays, and Fluoresence Ca+2 Concentration Measurements, we determined the cellular mechanisms involved in such release. KEY FINDINGS: Surprisingly, PKCζ PS has no effect on either phosphorylation of T560, essential for catalytic activity, nor it has an effect on kinase activity. It induces the dose-dependent release of Glu by increasing intracellular Ca+2 levels. Interestingly, this release was not observed upon stimulation by other non-competitive PKC-ζ inhibitors. We here demonstrated that the PKCζ PS stimulates the release of Glutamate from RPE by activating the Ca2+-dependent Cl channel Bestrophin 1 (Best1). SIGNIFICANCE: These results question PKCζ PS specificity as an inhibitor of this enzyme. Furthermore, the present results underline the relevance of clarifying the molecular mechanisms involved in glutamate release from the retina under conditions derived from excitotoxic stimuli.

Thrombin-activated PAR1 membrane expression is regulated by Rab11a-RCP complex dissociation.

PAR1 activation by thrombin promotes intracellular signaling leading to RPE cell transformation, proliferation, and migration, characteristic of fibroproliferative eye diseases. Due to the cleavage of PAR1 N-terminal domain, carried by thrombin, the arrest of PAR1 signaling is achieved by transport into lysosomes and degradation. Recent findings suggest that the GTPase Rab11a in conjunction with its effector RCP may direct PAR1 to lysosomes. Hereby we demonstrate that thrombin-induced PAR1 internalization and lysosomal targeting requires the disassembly of the Rab11a/RCP complex, and that this process depends on thrombin-induced intracellular calcium increase and calpain activation. These findings unveil a novel mechanism that regulates thrombin activated PAR1 internalization and degradation.

Serum differentially modifies the transcription and translation of NMDAR subunits in retinal neurons.

The N-methyl-D-aspartate type of glutamate receptor (NMDAR) plays a major role in the vertebrate retina. Expression of NR1 splice-variants and NR2 subunits in the retina differs from that in the brain, suggesting a tissue-specific heteromeric assembly of NMDARs. We previously demonstrated that serum alters retinal glutamate receptor properties. In order to relate this effect to NMDAR subunit composition, we here studied the effect of serum on the expression of NMDAR subunits and splice-variants in chick retinal neurons in primary culture. Our results show that mRNA and protein expression of NR1 alternative splice-variants and NR2 subunits are differentially modified by glutamate contained in serum. Such alteration suggests that NMDAR structure is reversed to embryonic heteromeric composition, through the control of subunit availability. The present findings could be relevant for the understanding of the lack of effect in the retina, of drugs which have been shown to protect cortical neurons from glutamate-induced excitotoxicity in those pathological or clinical conditions in which the retina is exposed to serum.

D-serine regulates CREB phosphorylation induced by NMDA receptor activation in Müller glia from the retina.

D-serine is an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor coagonist predominantly produced by glial cells in the brain and the retina. Whereas a role for D-serine as a modulator of NMDA receptors in neurons has been suggested, its function in glial cells has not been analyzed. We here show that D-serine modulates gene expression in Müller glial cells from the retina through the induction of transcription factor CREB phosphorylation and the expression of the immediate-early gene c-fos. Pharmacological analysis indicates that D-serine effect involves NMDA receptor activation. Comparison of the effect of D-serine in Müller cells, hippocampal astrocytes and hippocampal neurons suggests that D-serine could function as a retinal NMDA receptor coagonist activating functionally relevant transcription factor pathways in glial cells.

Paxillin: a crossroad in pathological cell migration.

Paxilllin is a multifunctional and multidomain focal adhesion adapter protein which serves an important scaffolding role at focal adhesions by recruiting structural and signaling molecules involved in cell movement and migration, when phosphorylated on specific Tyr and Ser residues. Upon integrin engagement with extracellular matrix, paxillin is phosphorylated at Tyr31, Tyr118, Ser188, and Ser190, activating numerous signaling cascades which promote cell migration, indicating that the regulation of adhesion dynamics is under the control of a complex display of signaling mechanisms. Among them, paxillin disassembly from focal adhesions induced by extracellular regulated kinase (ERK)-mediated phosphorylation of serines 106, 231, and 290 as well as the binding of the phosphatase PEST to paxillin have been shown to play a key role in cell migration. Paxillin also coordinates the spatiotemporal activation of signaling molecules, including Cdc42, Rac1, and RhoA GTPases, by recruiting GEFs, GAPs, and GITs to focal adhesions. As a major participant in the regulation of cell movement, paxillin plays distinct roles in specific tissues and developmental stages and is involved in immune response, epithelial morphogenesis, and embryonic development. Importantly, paxillin is also an essential player in pathological conditions including oxidative stress, inflammation, endothelial cell barrier dysfunction, and cancer development and metastasis.

Thrombin-Induced Calpain Activation Promotes Protease-Activated Receptor 1 Internalization.

The serine protease thrombin activates Protease-Activated Receptors (PARs), a family of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) activated by the proteolytic cleavage of their extracellular N-terminal domain. Four members of this family have been identified: PAR1-4. The activation of Protease-Activated Receptor 1(PAR1), the prototype of this receptor family, leads to an increase in intracellular Ca+2 concentration ([Ca+2]i) mediated by Gq11α coupling and phospholipase C (PLC) activation. We have previously shown that the stimulation of PAR1 by thrombin promotes intracellular signaling leading to RPE cell transformation, proliferation, and migration which characterize fibroproliferative eye diseases leading to blindness. Within this context, the elucidation of the mechanisms involved in PAR1 inactivation is of utmost importance. Due to the irreversible nature of PAR1 activation, its inactivation must be efficiently regulated in order to terminate signaling. Using ARPE-19 human RPE cell line, we characterized thrombin-induced [Ca+2]i increase and demonstrated the calcium-dependent activation of µ-calpain mediated by PAR1. Calpains are a family of calcium-activated cysteine proteases involved in multiple cellular processes including the internalization of membrane proteins through clathrin-coated vesicles. We demonstrated that PAR1-induced calpain activation results in the degradation of α-spectrin by calpain, essential for receptor endocytosis, and the consequent decrease in PAR1 membrane expression. Collectively, the present results identify a novel µ-calpain-dependent mechanism for PAR1 inactivation following exposure to thrombin.

PKC-ζ Regulates Thrombin-Induced Proliferation of Human Müller Glial Cells.

PURPOSE: To investigate the effect of thrombin on the proliferation of human Müller glial cells (MCs) and define the possible signaling mechanisms involved in this process. METHODS: Protease-activated receptor (PARs 1-4) expression was analyzed using RT-PCR and Western blot in the MIO-M1 Müller cell line (MC). Müller cell proliferation was assessed by the MTS reduction method. Wound healing and immunoreactivity to Ki67 antigen were used to dissociate proliferation and migration. Cell migration was examined using transwell migration assays. The involvement of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) phosphorylation/activation in thrombin-induced human MC proliferation was determined by Western blot. Intracellular pathways involved in ERK1/2 activation were analyzed by pharmacologic inhibition. RESULTS: We first demonstrated that human MCs express PARs 1 to 4. Our results show that thrombin dose-dependently stimulates MC proliferation by 44%, with a calculated Ec50 of 0.86 nM. Müller cell maximal proliferation required sustained thrombin treatment for 72 hours, in contrast to our previous findings in RPE cells showing maximal thrombin-induced proliferation at 24-hour stimulation. We demonstrate that thrombin induces MC cell proliferation through the Ras-independent activation of the Raf/MEK/ERK cascade, under the control of protein kinase C (PKC)-ζ. CONCLUSIONS: The breakdown of blood-retina barrier (BRB) exposes MCs to thrombin contained in serum. Our findings further strengthen the critical involvement of thrombin in the development of proliferative retinopathies and may provide pharmacologic targets for the prevention or treatment of these diseases.

Cell-specific expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits in Müller glia and neurons from the chick retina.

PURPOSE: Functional N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors (NMDARs) in Müller glia may influence glutamate neurotransmission through feedback loops between glia and neurons. The physiologic properties of NMDARs derive from the subunit composition of the tetrameric receptor. We characterized glycine binding to the NMDAR coagonist site in Müller cell membranes and determined NMDAR subunit expression in chick Müller glia compared with retinal neurons to make predictions about the heteromeric assembly of NMDARs. METHODS: Kinetic and pharmacologic properties of the glycine coagonist site were determined by radiolabeled ligand binding to membrane preparations from chick Müller glia and retinal neurons in primary culture. The molecular composition of NMDARs was analyzed by RT-PCR amplification and Western blotting. RESULTS: The NMDAR coagonist site in Müller cell membranes has 5-fold lower affinity for glycine and 30-fold lower affinity for D-serine compared with values obtained for synaptic membranes from whole retina and with reported values in brain tissue. NR1 subunit N-terminal and C-terminal splice-variant expression also differs in Müller cells and retinal neurons. CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacologic characteristics of NMDAR coagonist-site differ in Müller glia and neurons from the retina, in agreement with the distinct subunit expression profile found. Whereas NMDARs in Müller glia contain exclusively exon 5 that lacks NR1 subunits, receptors in distinct subtypes of neurons may contain NR1 with or without exon 5, suggesting a cell-specific assembly of the NMDAR complex. Structural differences in NMDARs could underlie the differential participation of neurons and glia in the physiologic control of glutamate transmission in the retina.

Cloning and characterization of the chick NMDA receptor subunit-1 gene.

The N-methyl-D-aspartate family of glutamate receptors (NMDARs) are tetrameric cation channels including NR1, NR2, and possibly NR3 subunits. The physiological properties of the receptor are directly related to the subunit composition of the oligomer. Whereas NR1 is essential for the formation of functional channels, NR2 and NR3 play a modulatory role. This work reports, for the first time, the cloning of a non-mammalian NR1 gene, including the 5'-regulatory region. The chick gene spans 31 kb of genomic DNA sequence composed of 22 exons interrupted by 21 introns. The exon/intron organization and the deduced amino acid sequence up to the end of exon 19 showed 85% homology to mammalian NR1 cloned genes. Significant differences from mammals were found at the C-terminal region which in the chick gene, includes a novel exon (exon 20) previously identified at the mRNA level in the chick retina. The basal promoter activity was shown to reside within the proximal 377 bp of 5'-regulatory region. The transcriptional activity of the 5'-flanking region of the chick NR1 gene was shown to be higher in neuronally-differentiated PC12 cells and in chick retinal neurons, than in non-differentiated PC12 cells and Müller glia. Comparison of the 5'-flanking region of chick NR1 gene with mammalian NR1 genes suggests that, in spite of significant differences in the nucleotide sequence, they share common DNA binding sites such as RE1, SP1, AP2, CREB, NFkappaB, and MEF2; therefore, some of the molecular mechanisms involved in transcriptional regulation of NR1 gene expression could be conserved among species.

ERK1/2-dependent activation of mTOR/mTORC1/p70S6K regulates thrombin-induced RPE cell proliferation.

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), proliferation and migration of RPE cells characterize the development of proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) and other fibro-proliferative eye diseases leading to blindness. A common event in these pathologies is the alteration of the BRB which allows the interaction of RPE cells with thrombin, a pro-inflammatory protease contained in serum. Thrombin promotion of cytoskeletal reorganization, proliferation, and migration has been reported in different cell types, although the molecular mechanisms involved in these processes remain poorly understood. Our previous work demonstrated that thrombin promotes RPE cell proliferation, cytoskeletal remodeling and migration, hallmark processes in the development of PVR. Thrombin induction of RPE cell proliferation requires PI3K, PDK1, and Akt/PKB (Akt) signaling leading to cyclin D1 gene expression. Since Akt functions as an upstream activator of mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and is also a downstream target for mTORC2, the aim of this work was to determine whether mTOR is involved in thrombin-induced RPE cell proliferation by regulating cyclin D1 expression in immortalized rat RPE-J cell line. Results demonstrate that thrombin-induced cyclin D1 expression and cell proliferation require Akt-independent phosphorylation/activation of mTOR at Ser 2448 mediated by PI3K/PKC-ζ/ERK1/2 signaling, concomitant to Akt-dependent activation of p70S6K carried by mTORC1.

Characteristics and regulation of glycine transport in Bergmann glia.

In the vertebrate CNS, glycine acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter and as the obligatory coagonist of glutamate at N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. These roles depend on extracellular glycine levels, regulated by Na+/Cl--dependent transporters GLYT1, present mainly in glial cells, and GLYT2, predominantly neuronal. In Bergmann glia, GLYT1 mediates both, glycine uptake and efflux, which, in turn, influences excitatory neurotransmission at Purkinje cell synapses. The biochemical properties of GLYTs and their regulation by signaling pathways in these cells are largely unknown. We characterized Gly uptake in confluent primary cultures of Bergmann glia from chick cerebellum. Transport was found to be energy- and Na+-dependent, and was resolved into a high (Km=25 microM) and a low affinity (Km=1.1 mM) components identified as GLYT1 and transport System A, respectively. Results show that high affinity transport by GLYT1 is regulated by calcium from intracellular stores, calmodulin, and myosin light chain kinase through an actin cytoskeleton-mediated action.