Psychoeducational characteristics of children with hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia.

OBJECTIVE: Hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (HED) is an X-linked hereditary disorder characterized by hypohidrosis, hypotrichosis, and anomalous dentition. Estimates of up to 50% of affected children having intellectual disability are controversial. METHOD: In a cross-sectional study, 45 youth with HED (77% males, mean age 9.75 years) and 59 matched unaffected controls (70% males, mean age 9.79 years) were administered the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, and their parents completed standardized neurodevelopmental and behavioral measures, educational, and health-related information regarding their child, as well as standardized and nonstandardized data regarding socioeconomic information for their family. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups in intelligence quotient composite and educational achievement scores, suggesting absence of learning disability in either group. No gender differences within or between groups were found on any performance measures. Among affected youth, parental education level correlated positively with (1) cognitive vocabulary scores and cognitive composite scores; (2) educational achievement for mathematics, reading, and composite scores. CONCLUSION: Youth affected with HED and unaffected matched peers have similar profiles on standardized measures of cognition, educational achievement, and adaptive functioning although children with HED may be at increased risk for ADHD.

Does gestational weight gain affect the risk of adverse maternal and infant outcomes in overweight women?

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between gestational weight gain and adverse maternal and infant outcomes among overweight women [body mass index (BMI) 26.0-29.0 kg/m(2)]. METHODS: A population-based cohort study using birth certificate data (1990-2004) from 34,143 singleton, full-term deliveries to nulliparous, Missouri residents ages 18-35. Gestational weight gain was divided into three categories: below Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommendations (<15 lbs), within IOM recommendations (15-25 lbs), and above IOM recommendations (>25 lbs). Categories of 10-lb increments were also evaluated. The primary outcomes were preeclampsia, cesarean section, macrosomia, low birth weight (LBW), and perinatal death. Adjusted relative risks and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using Mantel-Haenszel pooled estimator. RESULTS: Compared to women who gained 15-25 lbs, women who gained <15 lbs were 0.8 (95% CI 0.6-1.0), 0.9 (0.8-1.0), 0.6 (0.5-0.8), and 1.7 (1.4-2.2) times as likely to have preeclampsia, cesarean section, macrosomia, and LBW, respectively. Conversely, women who gained >25 lbs were 1.7 (1.5-1.9), 1.3 (1.2-1.4), 2.1 (1.9-2.3), and 0.6 (0.5-0.7) times as likely to have preeclampsia, cesarean section, macrosomia, and LBW, respectively. The lowest risk of adverse outcomes was for women who gained in the 6-14 and 15-24 lb categories. There was no association between gestational weight gain and perinatal death. CONCLUSIONS: Increasing gestational weight gain appears to decrease the risk of LBW but elevates the risks of preeclampsia, cesarean section, and macrosomia. Overweight women should gain within current IOM recommendations.

Distance from home to hospital and thrombolytic utilization for acute ischemic stroke.

Treatment of acute stroke with thrombolytic therapy has been limited because of the narrow treatment window. Distance from home to hospital may affect arrival time and likelihood of receiving thrombolytic therapy for acute stroke. The present study included stroke subjects seen at Barnes Jewish Hospital in 2006-2007, residing in St Louis City/County, who were at home at the time of the stroke (n = 416). A network distance was calculated by mapping the best route from each subject's home to the hospital on a street network grid. Patients were grouped by distance into quintiles, and the group living the closest (group A, first quintile) was compared with the remainder of the cohort (group B). Outcomes of interest were rate of arrival within 3 hours of stroke onset (timely arrival) and rate of thrombolytic administration. The relative rate (RR) of each outcome was calculated for group A versus group B. A multivariate model of thrombolytic administration was created correcting for potential confounders. There was no difference in timely arrival between groups. The rate of thrombolytic administration was 13/100 for group B and 23/100 for group A, for an RR 0.55 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.31-0.097) for group B versus group A. In the multivariate model, only National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score was a significant confounder. The adjusted RR of thrombolytic treatment was 0.59 (95% CI, 0.34-0.99) for group B versus group A. Our data indicate that patients living in close proximity to the hospital are more likely to receive thrombolytic therapy for stroke compared with those living farther away. This finding cannot be explained by earlier arrival time.

Recurrence of preeclampsia: effects of gestational age at delivery of the first pregnancy, body mass index, paternity, and interval between births.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to establish estimates for recurrence risk of preeclampsia based on gestational age at delivery of the first pregnancy complicated by preeclampsia and to determine whether interbirth interval, paternity, and body mass index (BMI) modify that risk in women with prior preeclampsia. STUDY DESIGN: A population-based, cohort study was conducted using data from Missouri maternally linked birth certificates. The cohort included women who had 2 singleton births between 1989 and 1997: 6157 women with preeclampsia and 97,703 women without preeclampsia at the time of their first deliveries. Data were analyzed using the Poisson regression. RESULTS: At the time of their second delivery, 14.7% women with prior preeclampsia developed recurrent preeclampsia. The risk of recurrent preeclampsia is inversely related to gestational age at the first delivery: 38.6% for 28 weeks' gestation or earlier, 29.1% for 29-32 weeks, 21.9% for 33-36 weeks, and 12.9% for 37 weeks or more. The recurrent preeclampsia risk was fairly constant if both births occurred within 7 years. Obese and overweight women had higher risks of recurrent preeclampsia (19.3% and 14.2%), compared with women with normal BMI (11.2%). The recurrence risk did not differ according to paternity status. CONCLUSION: The risk of preeclampsia recurrence increases with earlier gestational age at the first delivery complicated by preeclampsia and with increasing maternal BMI.

Self-reported yeast symptoms compared with clinical wet mount analysis and vaginal yeast culture in a specialty clinic setting.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the validity of patients' self-reported symptoms of vulvovaginal candidiasis and the accuracy of clinical wet mount examinations compared with vulvovaginal yeast culture results in a specialty clinic. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective chart review of new patients seen at the Saint Louis University Vulvar and Vaginal Disease Clinic from January 2005 to March 2006 was performed. Patients' age, medication use, symptom scores on a rating scale for vaginal/vulvar pain, burning, itching, dyspareunia and wet mount analyses were compared with yeast culture results. RESULTS: Of 153 patients, 40 had positive yeast cultures (prevalence rate 26.1%). Compared with yeast cultures, self-reported symptom scores >4 resulted in high sensitivity (90%) and low specificity (7%). Positive wet mount result showed low sensitivity (18%) and high specificity (99%). Patient symptom scores were a poor predictor of yeast infections based on yeast culture results. No correlation was found among wet mount, self-reported symptoms and yeast culture results. No significant difference between age or symptom scores to culture result was found. CONCLUSION: Wet mount analysis for recurrent or persistent patient symptoms should be reevaluated. Self-reported symptoms are not reliable for diagnosis. Wet mount analysis resulted in low sensitivity. Yeast cultures should be considered the gold standard for identification of vulvovaginal candidiasis in persistent or recurrent cases.

Improving the public health workforce: evaluation of a training course to enhance evidence-based decision making.

An evidence-based public health (EBPH) course was developed in 1997 by the Prevention Research Center at Saint Louis University School of Public Health to train the public health workforce to enhance dissemination of EBPH in their public health practice. An on-line evaluation of the course was conducted among participants who attended the course from 2001 to 2004 to determine the impact the course had on the implementation of EBPH within their Respective public health agencies (n = 107). The majority of these individuals were program directors, managers, or coordinators working in state health departments. Results from the evaluation Revealed that 90 percent of participants indicated that the course helped them make more informed decisions in the workplace. Respondents identified improvement in their ability to communicate with their coworkers and Read Reports. When asked to identify potential barriers, participants specified that time constraints were the biggest impediment to using EBPH skills in the workplace. These data suggest the importance of professional training opportunities in EBPH for public health practitioners. Future endeavors should focus on overcoming the barriers to the dissemination of EBPH.

Evaluation of gestational weight gain guidelines for women with normal prepregnancy body mass index.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between gestational weight gain and adverse pregnancy outcomes among women with normal prepregnancy body mass index. METHODS: We conducted a population-based cohort study of women with normal prepregnancy body mass index who delivered full-term singletons using Missouri birth certificate data for 1999-2001. The cohort was divided into three groups (less than recommended [less than 25 lb], n=16,852; recommended [25-35 lb], n=37,292; more than recommended [more than 35 lb], n=40,552) based on Institute of Medicine gestational weight gain guidelines. Logistic regression was used to adjust for known confounders. RESULTS: Compared with women gaining 25-35 lb, women gaining less than 25 lb during pregnancy had lower odds for preeclampsia (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.56, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.49-0.64), cephalopelvic disproportion (aOR 0.64, 95% CI 0.55-0.75), failed induction (aOR 0.68, 95% CI 0.59-0.78), cesarean delivery (aOR 0.82, 95% CI 0.78-0.87), and large for gestational age infants (aOR 0.40, 95% CI 0.37-0.44) and increased odds for small for gestational age infants (aOR 2.14, 95% CI 2.01-2.27). Likewise, women gaining more than 35 lb had lower odds for small for gestational age infants (aOR 0.48, 95% CI 0.45-0.50) and increased odds for preeclampsia (aOR 1.88, 95% CI 1.74-2.04), failed induction (aOR 1.51, 95% CI 1.39-1.64), cesarean delivery (aOR 1.35, 95% CI 1.29-1.40), and large for gestational age infants (aOR 2.43, 95% CI 2.30-2.56). CONCLUSION: Our study shows that adherence to the current Institute of Medicine guidelines results in lower risks for adverse pregnancy, labor, and delivery outcomes when comparing all outcomes collectively.

Gestational weight gain and pregnancy outcomes in obese women: how much is enough?

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of gestational weight change on pregnancy outcomes in obese women. METHODS: A population-based cohort study of 120,251 pregnant, obese women delivering full-term, liveborn, singleton infants was examined to assess the risk of four pregnancy outcomes (preeclampsia, cesarean delivery, small for gestational age births, and large for gestational age births) by obesity class and total gestational weight gain. RESULTS: Gestational weight gain incidence for overweight or obese pregnant women, less than the currently recommended 15 lb, was associated with a significantly lower risk of preeclampsia, cesarean delivery, and large for gestational age birth and higher risk of small for gestational age birth. These results were similar for each National Institutes of Health obesity class (30-34.9, 35-35.9, and 40.0 kg/m(2)), but at different amounts of gestational weight gain. CONCLUSION: Limited or no weight gain in obese pregnant women has favorable pregnancy outcomes.

Recurrence risk for preterm delivery.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate recurrence risk of preterm delivery in third births. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a population-based cohort study of Missouri mothers who delivered 3 consecutive singleton live births during 1989-1997. The recurrence risk was computed for 4 cohorts based on prior preterm delivery status and adjusted using Mantel-Haenszel stratified analysis. RESULTS: The study population included 19,025 third births. The recurrence risk ranged from 42% (for women with 2 prior preterm deliveries), through 21% (term/preterm) and 13% (preterm/term), to 5% (term/term). The recurrence risk was highest (57%) for women with 2 prior very preterm deliveries (21-31 weeks) and lowest (33%) for those with 2 prior moderate preterm deliveries (32-36 weeks). The recurrence risk was less pronounced for women with 1 prior very or moderate preterm delivery. CONCLUSION: These data show a strong association between prior preterm delivery and recurrence risk, which is affected by the frequency, order, and severity of prior preterm births.

Association of nursing workload and unplanned extubations in a pediatric intensive care unit.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate nursing workload from the patient acuity level (PAL) assigned to patients in a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) and to determine its influence on unplanned extubations. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: The 19-bed PICU of an urban, university-affiliated, tertiary children's hospital. PATIENTS: All patients admitted to the PICU. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The study encompassed 2,193 nursing shifts and 1,919 admissions to the PICU over 24 months. The shift census averaged 12.0 patients (range 5-18) and was staffed by 9.4 nurses (range 4-16) for an average patient/nurse ratio of 1.3 +/- 0.2. Patients were assigned a PAL of 1-7 based on a classification system derived from time studies of 12 general nursing tasks. The total PALs per shift divided by the number of nursing staff yielded an average assignment of 5.8 +/- 0.7 PALs. Forty unplanned extubations (0.76 unplanned extubations/100 ventilator days) were observed during the study period. Logistic regression revealed positive associations between unplanned extubations and patient/nurse ratio (p = .03) and the shift PAL/nurse ratio (p = .01). The likelihood of an unplanned extubation when nurses covered >6.3 PALs was 3.8 times higher than during those shifts when they covered <5.3 PALs. CONCLUSIONS: The likelihood of an unplanned extubation increased with higher patient/nurse and patient acuity/nurse ratios. Successful interventions to reduce the frequency of this medical error may need to address both nurse demand methodology and workload.

Training practitioners in evidence-based chronic disease prevention for global health.

Too often, public health decisions are based on short-term demands rather than long-term research and objectives. Policies and programmes are sometimes developed around anecdotal evidence. The Evidence-Based Public Health (EBPH) programme trains public health practitioners to use a comprehensive, scientific approach when developing and evaluating chronic disease programmes. Begun in 2002, the EBPH programme is an international collaboration. The course is organized in seven parts to teach skills in: 1) assessing a community's needs; 2) quantifying the issue; 3) developing a concise statement of the issue; 4) determining what is known about the issue by reviewing the scientific literature; 5) developing and prioritizing programme and policy options; 6) developing an action plan and implementing interventions; and 7) evaluating the programme or policy. The course takes an applied approach and emphasizes information that is readily available to busy practitioners, relying on experiential learning and includes lectures, practice exercises, and case studies. It focuses n using evidence-based tools and encourages participants to add to the evidence base in areas where intervention knowledge is sparse. Through this training programme, we educated practitioners from 38 countries in 4 continents. This article describes the evolution of the parent course and describes experiences implementing the course in the Russian Federation, Lithuania, and Chile. Lessons learned from replication of the course include the need to build a "critical mass" of public health officials trained in EBPH within each country and the importance of international, collaborative networks. Scientific and technologic advances provide unprecedented opportunities for public health professionals to enhance the practice of EBPH. To take full advantage of new technology and tools and to combat new health challenges, public health practitioners must continually improve their skills.

Outbreak of Salmonella javiana infection at a children's hospital.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the source of an outbreak of Salmonella javiana infection. DESIGN: Case-control study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 101 culture-confirmed cases and 540 epidemiologically linked cases were detected between May 26, 2003, and June 16, 2003, in hospital employees, patients, and visitors. Asymptomatic employees who had eaten in the hospital cafeteria between May 30 and June 4, 2003, and had had no gastroenteritis symptoms after May 1, 2003, were chosen as control subjects. SETTING: A 235-bed academic tertiary care children's hospital. RESULTS: Isolates from 100 of 101 culture-confirmed cases had identical pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns. A foodhandler with symptoms of gastroenteritis was the presumed index subject. In multivariate analysis, case subjects were more likely than control subjects to have consumed items from the salad bar (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 5.3; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.3-12.1) and to have eaten in the cafeteria on May 28 (aOR, 9.4; 95% CI, 1.8-49.5), May 30 (aOR, 3.6; 95% CI, 1.0-12.7), and/or June 3 (aOR, 4.0; 95% CI, 1.4-11.3). CONCLUSIONS: Foodhandlers who worked while they had symptoms of gastroenteritis likely contributed to the propagation of the outbreak. This large outbreak was rapidly controlled through the use of an incident command center.

Correlates of physical activity among pregnant women in the United States.

INTRODUCTION: Physical activity recommendations for pregnant and nonpregnant women have been issued, but little data exist to compare the extent that these women are meeting the recommendation levels. METHODS: A population-based, cross-sectional study using data from the 1994, 1996, 1998, and 2000 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System evaluated the physical activity recommendations met by pregnant and nonpregnant women. The study population included women who were 18-44 yr of age. Random digit dialing, telephone surveys were used to assess all information. Pregnant and nonpregnant women were categorized into five mutually exclusive groups based upon their level of physical activity in the past month: vigorous activity (meeting guidelines) moderate activity (meeting guidelines), moderate or vigorous activity (not meeting guidelines), irregular activity, or no physical activity. RESULTS: Nonpregnant women were more likely than pregnant women to meet the vigorous or moderate physical activity recommendations. Walking was the most common activity among pregnant and nonpregnant women (52 and 45%, respectively). Pregnant women meeting the moderate or vigorous physical activity recommendations were more likely to be younger, nonhispanic white, more educated, not married, nonsmokers, and to have higher incomes. CONCLUSION: Many pregnant women do not appear to be meeting the physical activity recommendations. Healthcare providers should further encourage the promotion of physical activity during uncomplicated pregnancies.

Socioeconomic factors and adolescent pregnancy outcomes: distinctions between neonatal and post-neonatal deaths?

BACKGROUND: Young maternal age has long been associated with higher infant mortality rates, but the role of socioeconomic factors in this association has been controversial. We sought to investigate the relationships between infant mortality (distinguishing neonatal from post-neonatal deaths), socioeconomic status and maternal age in a large, retrospective cohort study. METHODS: We conducted a population-based cohort study using linked birth-death certificate data for Missouri residents during 1997-1999. Infant mortality rates for all singleton births to adolescent women (12-17 years, n = 10,131; 18-19 years, n = 18,954) were compared to those for older women (20-35 years, n = 28,899). Logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for all potential associations. RESULTS: The risk of infant (OR 1.95, CI 1.54-2.48), neonatal (1.69, 1.24-2.31) and post-neonatal mortality (2.47, 1.70-3.59) were significantly higher for younger adolescent (12-17 years) than older (20-34 years) mothers. After adjusting for race, marital status, age-appropriate education level, parity, smoking status, prenatal care utilization, and poverty status (indicated by participation in WIC, food stamps or Medicaid), the risk of post-neonatal mortality (1.73, 1.14-2.64) but not neonatal mortality (1.43, 0.98-2.08) remained significant for younger adolescent mothers. There were no differences in neonatal or post-neonatal mortality risks for older adolescent (18-19 years) mothers. CONCLUSION: Socioeconomic factors may largely explain the increased neonatal mortality risk among younger adolescent mothers but not the increase in post-neonatal mortality risk.

Prevention Research Centers: contributions to updating the public health workforce through training.

Because public health is a continually evolving field, it is essential to provide ample training opportunities for public health professionals. As a natural outgrowth of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Prevention Research Centers Program, training courses of many types have been developed for public health practitioners working in the field. This article describes three of the Prevention Research Center training program offerings: Evidence-Based Public Health, Physical Activity and Public Health for Practitioners, and Social Marketing. These courses illustrate the commitment of the Prevention Research Centers Program to helping create a better trained public health workforce, thereby enhancing the likelihood of improving public health.

To gown or not to gown: the effect on acquisition of vancomycin-resistant enterococci.

Infection-control recommendations include the use of gowns and gloves to prevent horizontal transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). This study sought to determine whether the use of a gown and gloves gives greater protection than glove use alone against VRE transmission in a medical intensive care unit (MICU). From 1 July 1997 through 30 June 1998 and from 1 July 1999 through 31 December 1999, health care personnel and visitors were required to don gloves and gowns upon entry into rooms where there were patients infected with nosocomial pathogens. From 1 July 1998 through 30 June 1999, only gloves were required under these same circumstances. During the gown period, 59 patients acquired VRE (9.1 cases per 1000 MICU-days), and 73 patients acquired VRE during the no-gown period (19.6 cases per 1000 MICU-days; P<.01). The adjusted risk estimate indicated that gowns were protective in reducing VRE acquisition in an MICU with high VRE colonization pressure.

Early mobilization of patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine if early mobilization (EM) of hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) reduces hospital length of stay. DESIGN: Group randomized trial. SETTING: Three Midwestern hospitals. PARTICIPANTS: Four hundred fifty-eight patients with CAP admitted to 17 general medical units between November 1997 and April 1998. INTERVENTION: EM was defined as sitting out of bed or ambulating for at least 20 min during the first 24 h of hospitalization. Progressive mobilization occurred each subsequent day during hospitalization. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Intervention (n = 227) and usual-care patients (n = 231) were similar in age, gender, disease severity, door-to-drug delivery time, and IV-to-po switchover time. Hospital length of stay for EM vs usual care was significantly less (mean, 5.8 vs 6.9 days; adjusted absolute difference, 1.1 days; 95% confidence interval, 0.0 to 2.2 days). There were no differences in adverse events or other secondary outcomes between treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS: Like patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction and total knee replacements, EM of hospitalized patients with CAP reduces overall hospital length of stay and institutional resources without increasing the risk of adverse outcomes.

An intervention to improve antibiotic delivery and sputum procurement in patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To determine if an educational intervention targeting emergency department (ED) and medicine staff could successfully decrease the time to antibiotic delivery (door-to-drug delivery time [DDD]) for patients admitted through the ED with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). DESIGN: Prospective, multidisciplinary team-based educational project. Demographics, outcomes, and processes of care including DDD and sputum procurement for patients with CAP were determined during a baseline period and compared to the same parameters for patients with CAP presenting after the educational intervention was administered to ED and medicine staff. SETTING: Barnes-Jewish Hospital, a large Midwest teaching institution affiliated with the Washington University School of Medicine. PATIENTS: Consecutive adult patients admitted through the ED with CAP. INTERVENTION: Multidisciplinary in-service education administered to ED physicians and nurses, and medicine housestaff, which emphasized the importance of rapid antibiotic delivery and procurement of preantibiotic expectorated sputum. RESULTS: Mean DDD improved from 413 to 291 min (p = 0.02), with more patients receiving antibiotics in the ED (46% vs 69%; adjusted odds ratio [OR], 2.3; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.0 to 4.9). Sputum procurement improved from 11.5 to 25.4% (adjusted OR, 3.3; 95% CI, 1.1 to 9.9). There were no observed differences for inpatient mortality or length of stay. CONCLUSION: This multidisciplinary team intervention significantly improved the time to initiation of antibiotics and procurement of sputum for patients with CAP.

A cost-benefit analysis of gown use in controlling vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus transmission: is it worth the price?

OBJECTIVE: To determine the net benefit and costs associated with gown use in preventing transmission of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE). DESIGN: A cost-benefit analysis measuring the net benefit of gowns was performed. Benefits, defined as averted costs from reduced VRE colonization and infection, were estimated using a matched cohort study. Data sources included a step-down cost allocation system, hospital informatics, and microbiology databases. SETTING: The medical intensive care unit (MICU) at Barnes-Jewish Hospital, St. Louis, Missouri. PATIENTS: Patients admitted to the MICU for more than 24 hours from July 1, 1997, to December 31, 1999. INTERVENTIONS: Alternating periods when all healthcare workers and visitors were required to wear gowns and gloves versus gloves alone on entry to the rooms of patients colonized or infected with VRE. RESULTS: On base-case analysis, 58 VRE cases were averted with gown use during 18 months. The annual net benefit of the gown policy was dollar 419,346 and the cost per case averted of VRE was dollar 1,897. The analysis was most sensitive to the level of VRE transmission. CONCLUSIONS: Infection control policies (eg, gown use) initially increase the cost of health services delivery. However, such policies can be cost saving by averting nosocomial infections and the associated costs of treatment. The cost savings to the hospital plus the benefits to patients and their families of avoiding nosocomial infections make effective infection control policies a good investment.

Body mass index change between pregnancies and small for gestational age births.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate whether maternal weight changes between pregnancies influence the risk for small for gestational age (SGA) births. METHODS: SGA cases (n = 8,062) below the tenth percentile birth weight for gestational age were selected from liveborn singletons born of Missouri residents during 1989-1997. Normal weight controls (n = 8,062) were selected according to birth year. The risk of SGA from interpregnancy body mass index (BMI) change and other maternal factors was estimated using logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: An increase in BMI between pregnancies decreased SGA risk (adjusted odds ratio = 0.8; 95% confidence interval 0.7, 1.0). Other risk factors were prior SGA (4.4; 4.0, 4.8), preeclampsia/eclampsia (2.6; 2.1, 3.2), maternal cardiac disease (1.8; 1.1, 2.9), inadequate weight gain (1.9; 1.8, 2.2), and cigarette smoking (1.9; 1.7, 2.3 for 1-9 cigarettes per day; 2.5; 2.2, 2.8 for 10-19/d; and 2.8; 2.5, 3.3 for 20/d or more). CONCLUSION: Increase in interpregnancy BMI lowers SGA risk, but adequate weight gain during pregnancy is more effective.