Drivers of ecological effectiveness of marine protected areas: A meta-analytic approach from the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean (Brazil).

With the rapid global increase in the number and extent of marine protected areas (MPAs), there is a need for methods that enable an assessment of their actual contribution to biodiversity conservation. In Brazil, where MPAs have been designated to replenish biodiversity, there is a lack of regional-scale analysis of MPA impacts and the factors related to positive ecological change. This study aims to quantify the magnitude of the ecological effects of Brazilian MPAs and test whether some study and MPA characteristics (e.g., taxonomic group studied, exploitation level of species, MPA area, protection time, management effectiveness, level of connectedness, etc.) were underlying factors associated with their performance. We conducted a structured search in a database of scientific articles, selecting comparative studies of direct biodiversity metrics inside and outside MPAs offering different protection levels (i.e., fully- or partially-protected MPAs) or within MPAs with distinct zones. We then carried out a meta-analysis based on 424 observations found in 18 articles. Averaged across all studies, we found that MPAs had a 17% increase in the abundance of species, length of individuals, and community diversity. When compared to open-access areas, fully-protected MPAs increased biodiversity by 45%. However, MPAs offering partial protection had variable effects, ranging from significant positive to significant negative effects. MPA effects depended on the taxonomic group and exploitation level of species, with the strongest positive effects seen on exploited fish species and benthic invertebrates. Partially-protected MPAs that reported strong positive effects required long time of protection (>15years) and high level of connectivity. Conversely, fully-protected MPAs (i.e., no-take ones) could be effective even when small, under intense fishing pressure in their surroundings, and regardless of their level of connectivity. We used the Brazilian MPAs as a case study, but these results can contribute to a more comprehensive assessment of the association between ecological impacts of MPAs and drivers of conservation success, and offer key information to consolidate MPA networks that sustain biodiversity.

Levelling-up rhodolith-bed science to address global-scale conservation challenges.

Global marine conservation remains fractured by an imbalance in research efforts and policy actions, limiting progression towards sustainability. Rhodolith beds represent a prime example, as they have ecological importance on a global scale, provide a wealth of ecosystem functions and services, including biodiversity provision and potential climate change mitigation, but remain disproportionately understudied, compared to other coastal ecosystems (tropical coral reefs, kelp forests, mangroves, seagrasses). Although rhodolith beds have gained some recognition, as important and sensitive habitats at national/regional levels during the last decade, there is still a notable lack of information and, consequently, specific conservation efforts. We argue that the lack of information about these habitats, and the significant ecosystem services they provide, is hindering the development of effective conservation measures and limiting wider marine conservation success. This is becoming a pressing issue, considering the multiple severe pressures and threats these habitats are exposed to (e.g., pollution, fishing activities, climate change), which may lead to an erosion of their ecological function and ecosystem services. By synthesizing the current knowledge, we provide arguments to highlight the importance and urgency of levelling-up research efforts focused on rhodolith beds, combating rhodolith bed degradation and avoiding the loss of associated biodiversity, thus ensuring the sustainability of future conservation programs.

Effectiveness of management zones for recovering parrotfish species within the largest coastal marine protected area in Brazil.

The establishment of multiple zones offering different protection levels within a Marine Protected Area (MPA) can minimize social conflicts while maintaining associated biodiversity benefits such as fish population replenishment. Parrotfishes are among one of the most ecologically important reef fishes; yet extremely overexploited worldwide. In this context, well-designed priority management areas allowing no fishing activity (no-take zones) could help recover fish species, such as parrotfishes, through a MPA zoning process. Here, we tested this hypothesis by identifying the spatial configuration of zones that maximize the recovery of endangered parrotfish species (Scarus trispinosus; Scarus zelindae; Sparisoma amplum; Sparisoma axillare; Sparisoma frondosum) at the largest MPA in Brazil protecting nearshore coral reefs (MPA Costa dos Corais). We used parrotfish distribution data to produce species distribution models (SDMs) and combined them with conservation planning tools to delineate priority zones following a systematic approach. Then, we contrasted priority zones against non-systematic, newly designed no-take zones based on managers' and stakeholders' perspectives. After mapping the predicted abundance of each species within both zones based upon field surveys, we found that priority zones were more effective than non-systematic ones for the protection of two out of the five species: Scarus trispinosus and Sparisoma amplum. Thus, we considered that designing systematic zones was particularly relevant for increased protection of the two parrotfish species facing the largest decline. The prioritization analyses also showed that priority areas for parrotfish conservation following a systematic approach were mostly located surrounding and within no-take zones delineated by local stakeholders. The spatial overlap between systematic and non-systematic zones was of 38%. Hence, our study reinforces the importance of considering scientific information and methods (e.g., spatial distribution data and prioritization analyses) as a complementary strategy along with local stakeholders' knowledge, for delineating and refining management zones within MPAs.

A modelling approach to assess the impact of land mining on marine biodiversity: Assessment in coastal catchments experiencing catastrophic events (SW Brazil).

Analysis that link hydrological processes with oceanographic dispersion offer a promising approach for assessing impacts of land-based activities on marine ecosystems. However, such an analysis has not yet been customised to quantify specific pressures from mining activities on marine biodiversity including those from spillages resulting from tailing dam failure. Here, using a Brazilian catchment in which a tailing dam collapsed (Doce river) as a case study, we provide a modelling approach to assess the impacts on key ecosystems and marine protected areas subjected to two exposure regimes: (i) a pulse disturbance event for the period 2015-2016, following the immediate release of sediments after dam burst, which witnessed an average increase of 88% in sediment exports; and (ii) a press disturbance phase for the period 2017-2029, when impacts are sustained over time by sediments along the river's course. We integrated four components into impact assessments: hydrological modelling, coastal-circulation modelling, ecosystem mapping, and biological sensitivities. The results showed that pulse disturbance causes sharp increases in the amount of sediments entering the coastal area, exposing key sensitive ecosystems to pollution (e.g. rhodolith beds), highlighting an urgent need for developing restoration strategies for these areas. The intensity of impacts will diminish over time but the total area of sensitive ecosystems at risk are predicted to be enlarged. We determined monitoring and restoration priorities by evaluating and comparing the extent to which sensitive ecosystems within marine protected areas were exposed to disturbances. The information obtained in this study will allow the optimization of recovery efforts in the marine area affected, and valuation of ecosystem services lost.

Conservation Planning for Coral Reefs Accounting for Climate Warming Disturbances.

Incorporating warming disturbances into the design of marine protected areas (MPAs) is fundamental to developing appropriate conservation actions that confer coral reef resilience. We propose an MPA design approach that includes spatially- and temporally-varying sea-surface temperature (SST) data, integrating both observed (1985-2009) and projected (2010-2099) time-series. We derived indices of acute (time under reduced ecosystem function following short-term events) and chronic thermal stress (rate of warming) and combined them to delineate thermal-stress regimes. Coral reefs located on the Brazilian coast were used as a case study because they are considered a conservation priority in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean. We show that all coral reef areas in Brazil have experienced and are projected to continue to experience chronic warming, while acute events are expected to increase in frequency and intensity. We formulated quantitative conservation objectives for regimes of thermal stress. Based on these objectives, we then evaluated if/how they are achieved in existing Brazilian MPAs and identified priority areas where additional protection would reinforce resilience. Our results show that, although the current system of MPAs incorporates locations within some of our thermal-stress regimes, historical and future thermal refugia along the central coast are completely unprotected. Our approach is applicable to other marine ecosystems and adds to previous marine planning for climate change in two ways: (i) by demonstrating how to spatially configure MPAs that meet conservation objectives for warming disturbance using spatially- and temporally-explicit data; and (ii) by strategically allocating different forms of spatial management (MPA types) intended to mitigate warming impacts and also enhance future resistance to climate warming.