George N. Papanicolaou (1883-1962): Fifty years after the death of a great doctor, scientist and humanitarian.

Fifty years have passed since the death of Dr George Nicholas Papanicolaou, who was born in Kyme at the island of Euboea in Greece in 1883 and became known for his innovative revolutionary invention of the Pap smear test performed at the Cornell University Medical College in the USA. To date, even after the introduction of HPV vaccination into the clinical practice, Dr George Papanicolaou's method remains an essential component of the prevention strategy against cancer and has resulted in a 70% decrease in cervical cancer mortality over the last 60 years. This article, which presents briefly his biography, is dedicated to him on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of his death.

Vaccination against human papillomavirus in childhood: the next rubella analogue?

Direct comparisons between different vaccination programmes can reveal new targets and solve challenges that have been faced and managed in the past during similar health interventions. In the rubella vaccination programme both boys and girls were included in order to ensure that women of childbearing age are effectively protected. For human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination, at the moment only girls have been included into the scheme. The aspect of vaccinating both boys and girls against HPV, similarly to the rubella paradigm, would interrupt "high-risk" HPVs transmission from males to females and vice versa ensuring further elimination of HPV. The new generation of HPV vaccines is expected to cost less and this will contribute to the possible introduction of HPV vaccine in both males and females.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) typing in relation to ras oncogene mRNA expression in HPV-associated human squamous cervical neoplasia.

OBJECTIVE: Human papillomavirus (HPV) has been identified as the principal etiologic agent for cervical cancer and its precursors. Different HPV types have been associated with different oncogenic potential. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between specific HPV type infection and expression pattern of the ras family oncogenes in different grades of HPV-associated human cervical neoplasia. METHODS: HPV typing was performed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in 31 HPV-positive human cervical specimens from patients with squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL) or squamous cervical carcinoma (SCC). The mRNA expression levels of H-, K- and N-ras oncogenes were examined using the reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software. RESULTS: Among patients with SCC, H-, K- and N-ras expression levels were higher in HPV 16/18-associated cases compared to HPV 16/18-unassociated samples (p=0.003, p=0.004 and p=0.0001, respectively). The expression levels for H-, K- and N-ras were significantly higher in SCC patients with multiple HPV infection compared with SCC patients with single HPV infection (p=0.009, p=0.01 and p=0.021, respectively). Among patients with SIL, no statistically significant relationship was found between ras expression and HPV status. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate the possible role of ras signaling interaction with "high-risk" HPV 16/18 and multiple HPV infection in cervical cancer development.

Severe fenthion intoxications due to ingestion and inhalation with survival outcome.

Two cases of severe fenthion intoxication are presented. The first is a case of a psychiatric patient who attempted suicide with ingestion of the compound, and the second case was of a child exposed to the chemical agent by air spraying. Both patients were treated in the intensive care unit with atropine and pralidoxime and finally survived. Fenthion blood levels on admission were 2.7 and 0.95 microg/mL, respectively. Different concentrations of pralidoxime were added to the first patient's poisoned serum in order to assess in vitro the effect of pralidoxime on cholinesterase reactivation. The clinical and toxicological data of the poisonings are discussed, as well as the potential therapeutic use of pralidoxime in organophosphate intoxication.

Human papillomavirus in the oral cavity of children and mode of delivery: a retrospective study.

Our study aimed to examine the relationship between the presence of human papillomavirus (HPV) in the oral cavity of children and their mode of delivery. We investigated the presence of HPV infection in oral biopsies from 190 children (mean age: 7 years, range: 2-14 years) using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. Sixteen of 190 children (8.4%) were HPV-positive, with no significant difference between those delivered vaginally and by Caesarean section (C-section). The majority of the HPV-positive children were infected with type 16, whereas in the younger age group HPV type 11 was detected more frequently in children delivered by normal vaginal delivery (NVD) than by C-section. Our findings demonstrate the presence of HPV in the oral cavity of children delivered by both C-section as well as NVD. Further research on the possible modes of transmission of oral HPV infection will enable us to understand the natural history of HPV infection in childhood.

Prospective study of human norovirus infection in children with acute gastroenteritis in Greece.

AIM: Noroviruses are considered as a major cause of acute gastroenteritis in childhood worldwide. This prospective study was undertaken to investigate the frequency and clinical features of norovirus infections in children aged less than 5 years with acute gastroenteritis in Greece. METHODS: Routine stool samples were obtained from 227 children, 119 boys and 108 girls, with acute gastroenteritis, who attended a tertiary paediatric hospital in Athens during the period November 2008 - October 2009. All specimens were tested for the presence of norovirus, rotavirus and adenovirus antigens using validated enzyme-linked immunoassays. RESULTS: Norovirus was detected in 8 (7.9%) out of 101 children during the period November 2008 to April 2009, while the respective rate during the period May 2009 to October 2009 was 1/126 (0.8%). In the total sample, rotavirus was detected in 56 (24.7%) children and adenovirus in 5 (2.2%) children. Three (1.3%) samples grew Campylobacter jejuni, while 6 (2.6%) samples grew Salmonella. In all cases, norovirus was detected as a unique viral pathogen. Among norovirus-positive children, who required hospitalization, the median duration of intravenous fluid administration was 3.5 days. The median duration of hospitalization was 4 days (range 3 days to 5 days) and did not differ from the duration of hospitalization of rotavirus-positive children. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest norovirus as the second most common cause of community-acquired acute gastroenteritis in children in Greece, following rotavirus. We highlight the need to implement norovirus detection assays for the clinical diagnosis and the prevention of viral gastroenteritis in paediatric departments.