The global emergence of Chikungunya infection: An integrated view.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is one of the emerging viruses around the globe. It belongs to the family Togaviridae and genus Alphavirus and is an arthropod borne virus that transmits by the bite of an infected mosquito, mainly through Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopcitus. It is a spherical, enveloped virus with positive single stranded RNA genome. It was first discovered during 1952-53 in Tanganyika, after which outbreaks were documented in many regions of the world. CHIKV has two transmission cycles; an enzootic sylvatic cycle and an urban cycle. CHIKV genome contains 11,900 nucleotides and two open reading frames and shows great sequence variability. Molecular mechanisms of virus host-cell interactions and the pathogenesis of disease are not fully understood. The disease involves three phases; acute, post-acute and chronic with symptoms including high-grade fever, arthralgia, macupapular rashes and headache. There is no licensed vaccine or specific treatment for CHIKV infection. This lack of specific interventions combined with difficulties in making a precise diagnosis together make the disease difficult to manage. In this review we aim to present the current knowledge of global epidemiology, transmission, structure, various aspects of diagnosis as well as highlight potential antiviral drugs and vaccines against CHIKV.

Pulling the Brakes on Fast and Furious Multiple Drug-Resistant (MDR) Bacteria.

Life-threatening bacterial infections have been managed by antibiotics for years and have significantly improved the wellbeing and lifetime of humans. However, bacteria have always been one step ahead by inactivating the antimicrobial agent chemically or by producing certain enzymes. The alarming universal occurrence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria has compelled researchers to find alternative treatments for MDR infections. This is a menace where conventional chemotherapies are no longer promising, but several novel approaches could help. Our current review article discusses the novel approaches that can combat MDR bacteria: starting off with potential nanoparticles (NPs) that efficiently interact with microorganisms causing fatal changes in the morphology and structure of these cells; nanophotothermal therapy using inorganic NPs like AuNPs to destroy pathogenic bacterial cells; bacteriophage therapy against which bacteria develop less resistance; combination drugs that act on dissimilar targets in distinctive pathways; probiotics therapy by the secretion of antibacterial chemicals; blockage of quorum sensing signals stopping bacterial colonization, and vaccination against resistant bacterial strains along with virulence factors. All these techniques show us a promising future in the fight against MDR bacteria, which remains the greatest challenge in public health care.