Electrochemical genosensors in food safety assessment.

The main goal of food safety assessment is to provide reliable information on the identity and composition of food and reduce the presence of harmful components. Nowadays, there are many countries where rather than the presence of pathogens, common public concerns are focused on the presence of hidden allergens, fraudulent practices, and genetic modifications in food. Accordingly, food regulations attempt to offer a high level of protection and to guarantee transparent information to the consumers. The availability of analytical methods is essential to comply these requirements. Protein-based strategies are usually employed for this purpose, but present some limitations. Because DNA is a more stable molecule, present in most tissues, and can be amplified, there has been an increasing interest in developing DNA-based approaches (polymerase chain reaction, microarrays, and genosensors). In this regard, electrochemical genosensors may play a major role in fulfilling the needs of food industry, such as reliable, portable, and affordable devices. This work reviews the achievements of this technology applied to allergen detection, species identification, and genetically modified organisms testing. We summarized the legislative framework, current design strategies in sensor development, their analytical characteristics, and future prospects.

Hairpin-based DNA electrochemical sensor for selective detection of a repetitive and structured target codifying a gliadin fragment.

High selectivity of genosensors is crucial for certain applications such as those involving species with high genetic variability. This is an unresolved problem when dealing with long target sequences that is further complicated when the target contains repetitive sequence domains. As a model for this situation, the problem of detecting gluten in food with identification of the source is studied. In order to discriminate the specific DNA sequence that encodes the wheat prolamin (gliadin) from rye and barley prolamins, the exquisite selectivity of a rationally designed hairpin capture probe is proposed and compared to a nonstructured capture probe. An electrochemical sandwich assay is proposed, involving capture probes chemisorbed on Au surfaces and biotinylated-signaling probes in combination with streptavidin-peroxidase labeling conjugates. As a result, a genosensor with similar sensitivity to that observed with linear probes but with complete specificity against closely related species was achieved. The surface-attached DNA stem-loop yields a device capable of accurately discriminating wheat DNA from rye and barley with a limit of detection of 1 nM.

High resolution melting analysis as a new approach to discriminate gluten-containing cereals.

With this work, it is intended to propose a novel approach based on high resolution melting (HRM) analysis to detect wheat and discriminate it from other gluten-containing cereals. The method consisted of a real-time PCR assay targeting the gene encoding for the germ agglutinin isolectin A protein (Tri a 18 allergen), using the fluorescent Evagreen dye combined with HRM analysis. The results enabled wheat differentiation from other phylogenetically related cereals, namely barley, rye and oat with high level of confidence. Additionally, a quantitative real-time PCR approach was proposed, allowing detecting and quantifying wheat down to 20mg/kg in rice flour and 20pg of wheat DNA (∼1.1 DNA copies). Its application was successfully achieved in the analysis of processed foods to verify labelling compliance, being considered as a cost-effective tool for the specific detection of cereals in gluten-free foods.

Challenging genosensors in food samples: The case of gluten determination in highly processed samples.

Electrochemical genosensors have undergone an enormous development in the last decades, but only very few have achieved a quantification of target content in highly processed food samples. The detection of allergens, and particularly gluten, is challenging because legislation establishes a threshold of 20 ppm for labeling as gluten-free but most genosensors expresses the results in DNA concentration or DNA copies. This paper describes the first attempt to correlate the genosensor response and the wheat content in real samples, even in the case of highly processed food samples. A sandwich-based format, comprising a capture probe immobilized onto the screen-printed gold electrode, and a signaling probe functionalized with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), both hybridizing with the target was used. The hybridization event was electrochemically monitored by adding an anti-FITC peroxidase (antiFITC-HRP) and its substrate, tetramethylbenzidine. Binary model mixtures, as a reference material, and real samples have been analyzed. DNA from food was extracted and a fragment encoding the immunodominant peptide of α2-gliadin amplified by a tailored PCR. The sensor was able to selectively detect toxic cereals for celiac patients, such as different varieties of wheat, barley, rye and oats, from non-toxic plants. As low as 0.001% (10 mg/kg) of wheat flour in an inert matrix was reliably detected, which directly compete with the current method of choice for DNA detection, the real-time PCR. A good correlation with the official immunoassay was found in highly processed food samples.

Strongly structured DNA sequences as targets for genosensing: sensing phase design and coupling to PCR amplification for a highly specific 33-mer gliadin DNA fragment.

Electrochemical genosensors are becoming cost-effective miniaturizable alternatives to real-time PCR (RT-PCR) methods for the detection of sequence-specific DNA fragments. We report on the rapid detection of PCR amplicons without the need of purification or strand separation. A challenging target sequence for both PCR amplification and electrochemical detection allowed us to address some difficulties associated to hybridization on electrode surfaces. The target was a highly specific oligonucleotide sequence of wheat encoding the most immunogenic peptide of gliadin that triggers the immune response of celiac disease (CD), the 33-mer. With a sandwich assay format and a rational design of the capture and tagged-signaling probes the problems posed by the strong secondary structure of the target and complementary probes were alleviated. Using a binary self-assembled monolayer and enzymatic amplification, a limit of detection of 0.3 nM was obtained. The genosensor did not respond to other gluten-containing cereals such as rye and barley. Coupling to PCR to analyze wheat flour samples required tailoring both the capture and signaling probes. This is the first time that deleterious steric hindrance from long single-stranded regions adjacent to the electrode surface is reported for relatively short amplicons (less than 200 bp). The importance of the location of the recognition site within the DNA sequence is discussed. Since the selected gene fragment contains several repetitions of short sequences, a careful optimization of the PCR conditions had to be performed to circumvent the amplification of non-specific fragments from wheat flour.

Diseño de un genosensor electroquímico para la detección indirecta de gluten en alimentos / Electrochemical genosensor for indirect wheat gluten detection in food

Se propone un nuevo genosensor electroquímico para la detección de una secuencia específica de ADN que codifica un fragmento inmunogénico de la Alfa-2-gliadina, proteína del gluten de trigo responsable de la celiaquía. El diseño del genosensor se basa en la formación de una monocapa autoensamblada de sonda de captura y un agente bloqueante, mercaptohexanol, sobre electrodos de oro serigrafiados. Se eligió un ensayo tipo sándwich, utilizando una sonda indicadora marcada con biotina y el conjugado estreptavidina-fosfatasa alcalina como molécula de marcaje. La detección del analito se basó en la medida de la corriente de oxidación del 1-naftol, producto formado por la hidrólisis enzimática del 1-naftil-fosfato, mediante voltamperometría de pulso diferencial. Se investigaron y optimizaron los parámetros implicados en la composición de la fase sensora mediante voltametría cíclica, encontrándose como relación óptima sonda de captura: mercaptohexanol 2 microM:9 mM. Con el objetivo de minimizar las adsorciones inespecíficas, se optimizaron las concentraciones de sonda indicadora y conjugado enzima-estreptavidina, especies involucradas en la fase de medida, obteniéndose como valores óptimos 1 microM y 1,075x10-3 g/L respectivamente. El genosensor propuesto presentó una respuesta lineal entre 20 y 250 nM(AU)

A new electrochemical genosensor has been developed for the detection of a specific DNA sequence that encodes for an immunogenic fragment of Alpha-2-gliadin, protein of gluten wheat that plays an important role in celiac disease. The genosensor is based on a mixed self-assembled monolayer consisting on a capture probe and a diluent molecule, mercaptohexanol, both immobilized on screen-printed gold electrodes. A sandwich-type hybridization assay was selected, using a signaling-DNA probe labeled with biotin and streptavidin-alkaline phosphatase as a reporter molecule. Detection of DNA gluten is based on the measurement of the oxidization current of 1-naphthol, product formed by Alpha-naphthyl phosphate enzymatic hydrolysis, by differential pulse voltammetry. Parameters involved in the sensing phase were investigated and optimized by cyclic voltammetry. The optimal capture probe to mercaptohexanol ratio was found to be 2 micreM:9 mM. In order to minimize unspecific adsorptions, both signaling probe and enzyme-streptavidin conjugate concentrations (measurement phase parameters) were optimized (1 micreM and 1.075·10-3 g/L respectively). A linear response from 20 nM to 250 nM is obtained with the proposed genosensor(AU)

Comportamiento electroquímico de la dopamina en un electrodo de carbón vítreo modificado con laponita/glutaraldehído / Electrochemical behaviour of dopamine on a laponite/glutaraldehyde modified glassy carbon electrode

En el presente trabajo se propone un nuevo método para la determinación indirecta de dopamina (DA), basado en la modificación del electrodo de carbón vítreo mediante adsorción sobre su superficie de una película de laponita (arcilla catiónica) y glutaraldehído(GA). Mediante voltamperometría cíclica (VC) se estudió el comportamientoelectroquímico de la DA en una disolución tampón defosfato sódico 0,1 M, pH 6,0 y en presencia de tirosinasa (PPO). La presencia de tirosinasa permitió la determinación indirecta de DA, midiendo la corriente de reducción generada por el dopaminocromoformado a partir de la quinona procedente de la reacción enzimática entre DA y PPO a –0,25 V vs. Ag/AgCl (3 M). Esta corriente de reducción originada por el dopaminocromo es proporcional a la concentración de DA presente en el medio (AU)

Electrochemical behaviour of dopamine on a laponite/glutaraldehyde modified glassy carbon electrodeIn this work a new method of dopamine (DA) detection, based onglassy carbon electrode modified by adsorption on the surface with a film of laponita (cathionic clay) and glutaraldehyde (GA) is proposed. The electrochemical behaviour of the DA in a phosphate buffer solution 0,1 M, pH 6,0 of tyrosinase was studied by cyclic voltammetry technique (CV). The tyrosinase present in the solution allowed the indirect detection of DA monitoring the dopaminochrome coming from the quinone produced in the enzymatic reaction between the DA and tyrosine to –0.25 V vs. Ag/AgCl (3 M). The reduction current of the dopamine chrome was found to be proportional to the DAconcentration (AU)