A near dimensionally invariable high-capacity positive electrode material.

Delivering inherently stable lithium-ion batteries is a key challenge. Electrochemical lithium insertion and extraction often severely alters the electrode crystal chemistry, and this contributes to degradation with electrochemical cycling. Moreover, electrodes do not act in isolation, and this can be difficult to manage, especially in all-solid-state batteries. Therefore, discovering materials that can reversibly insert and extract large quantities of the charge carrier (Li+), that is, high capacity, with inherent stability during electrochemical cycles is necessary. Here lithium-excess vanadium oxides with a disordered rocksalt structure are examined as high-capacity and long-life positive electrode materials. Nanosized Li8/7Ti2/7V4/7O2 in optimized liquid electrolytes deliver a large reversible capacity of over 300 mAh g-1 with two-electron V3+/V5+ cationic redox, reaching 750 Wh kg-1 versus metallic lithium. Critically, highly reversible Li storage and no capacity fading for 400 cycles were observed in all-solid-state batteries with a sulfide-based solid electrolyte. Operando synchrotron X-ray diffraction combined with high-precision dilatometry reveals excellent reversibility and a near dimensionally invariable character during electrochemical cycling, which is associated with reversible vanadium migration on lithiation and delithiation. This work demonstrates an example of an electrode/electrolyte couple that produces high-capacity and long-life batteries enabled by multi-electron transition metal redox with a structure that is near invariant during cycling.

Influence of Atmospheric Gas Species on an Argyrodite-Type Sulfide Solid Electrolyte During Moisture Exposure.

Sulfide solid electrolytes have potential in practical all-solid-state batteries owing to their high formability and ionic conductivity. However, sulfide solid electrolytes are limited by the generation of toxic hydrogen sulfide and conductivity deterioration upon moisture exposure. Although numerous studies have investigated the hydrolysis degradation induced by "moisture," the influence of "atmospheric gases" during moisture exposure has not been extensively investigated despite the importance for practical fabrication. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the impact of atmospheric gases during moisture exposure on an argyrodite-type Li6PS5Cl via electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The electrolyte powder was exposed to various atmospheric gases, namely Ar, Ar + 500 ppm CO2, O2, and O2 + 500 ppm CO2, with moisture at a dew point of -20 °C, and H2S gas generation was monitored. As a result, the amount of H2S gas did not depend on the atmospheric gases. However, the atmospheric gases had a significant effect on the decrease in conductivity. Spectroscopic analyses revealed that CO2 facilitates the formation of carbonates and that O2 promotes the formation of phosphates and sulfonates. The formation of these compounds leads to surface degradation, which further decreases the conductivity.

Interface Behavior of Electrolyte/Quinone Organic Active Material in Battery Operation by Operando Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy.

To elucidate the microscopic charge/discharge (delithiation/lithiation) mechanism at the interface of the electrolyte and organic cathode active material in the lithium-ion battery, we prepared a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) electrode of 1,4-benzoquinone terminated dihexyl disulfide (BQ-C6) on Au(111). An electrochemical setup with the BQ-C6 SAM as a working electrode and 1 M lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (Li-TFSI)/triethyleneglycol dimethylether (G3) as the electrolyte was used. We adopted the shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) method to obtain sufficient Raman signal of SAM for operando Raman spectroscopy measurements by the enhancement with ∼100 nm diameter Au particles coated with SiO2 shell (average thickness = 2 nm). By this method, we succeeded in acquiring the Raman signal of the molecular monolayer on the model electrode simulating the interface between the electrolyte and the organic active material. In the cyclic voltammogram, two peaks were observed during the reduction reaction (lithiation), whereas only one peak was detected in the course of the oxidation process (delithiation). Simultaneous operando SHINERS showed a two-step spectral shape change in lithiation and coinciding (or simultaneous) one-step recovery during delithiation to match cyclic voltammetry behavior. The results indicate an asymmetric lithiation/delithiation mechanism.

Rapid improvements in charge carrier mobility at ionic liquid/pentacene single crystal interfaces by self-cleaning.

We report the rapid improvement in the carrier mobility of the electric double layer field-effect transistor based on the ionic liquid (IL)/pentacene single crystal interface. Generally, the surface oxidation of the pentacene single crystal is unavoidable, and the considerable degradation restricts the performance of the field-effect transistor. However, the formation of the IL/pentacene single crystal interface resolves this problem by increasing the carrier mobility by approximately twice the initial value within a few hours. Furthermore, frequency-modulation atomic force microscopy revealed that the aforementioned rapid improvement is attributed to the appearance of a clean and flat surface of the pentacene single crystal via the defect-induced spontaneous dissolution of pentacene molecules into the IL.

Molecularly clean ionic liquid/rubrene single-crystal interfaces revealed by frequency modulation atomic force microscopy.

The structural properties of ionic liquid/rubrene single-crystal interfaces were investigated using frequency modulation atomic force microscopy. The spontaneous dissolution of rubrene molecules into the ionic liquid was triggered by surface defects such as rubrene oxide defects, and the dissolution rate strongly depended on the initial conditions of the rubrene surface. Dissolution of the second rubrene layer was slower due to the lower defect density, leading to the formation of a clean interface irrespective of the initial conditions. Molecular-resolution images were easily obtained at the interface, and their corrugation patterns changed with the applied force. Force curve measurements revealed that a few solvation layers of ionic liquid molecules formed at the interface, and the force needed to penetrate the solvation layers was an order of magnitude smaller than typical ionic liquid/inorganic solid interfaces. These specific properties are discussed with respect to electric double-layer transistors based on the ionic liquid/rubrene single-crystal interface.

Elucidating the Reductive Decomposition Mechanism in Sulfide Solid Electrolyte Li4SnS4.

The sulfide solid electrolyte Li4SnS4 has garnered considerable interest due to its exceptional moisture durability, which is attributed to its stable hydrated state. However, a major limitation of certain sulfide solid electrolytes, including Li4SnS4, is their low reduction durability, which limits their application in the negative electrodes of all-solid-state batteries and impedes qualitative material development assessments. In this study, we introduced a quantitative and straightforward method for evaluating the reductive decomposition of Li4SnS4 to better understand its degradation mechanism. The configuration of the electrochemical evaluation cell was modified from SUS|Li4SnS4|Li to SUS|Li4SnS4|Li3PS4|Li, allowing for stabilization of the reference potential of the counter electrode. The reductive decomposition potential of Li4SnS4 was quantitatively assessed by using cyclic voltammetry in a two-layer electrochemical evaluation cell. We observed a minor irreversible reduction current below +1.2 V and a pronounced decomposition peak at +1.0 V. Notably, reductive decomposition continued below 0 V, which is typically the onset point for Li electrodeposition. Postreduction, the solid electrolyte was comprehensively analyzed through optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. These analyzes revealed the following: (i) The SnS44- unit in Li4SnS4 initially decomposes into Li2S and ß-Sn with the dissociation of the Sn-S bond; (ii) the resulting ß-Sn forms LixSn alloys such as Li0.4Sn; and (iii) the ongoing reductive decomposition reaction is facilitated by the electronic conductivity of these LixSn alloys. These findings offer crucial methodological and mechanistic insights into the development of higher-performance solid electrolyte materials.

Concerted Influence of H2O and CO2: Moisture Exposure of Sulfide Solid Electrolyte Li4SnS4.

Although moisture-induced deterioration mechanisms in sulfide solid electrolytes to enhance atmospheric stability have been investigated, the additional impact of CO2 exposure remains unclear. This study investigated the generation of H2S from Li4SnS4 under H2O and CO2 exposure. Li4SnS4 was exposed to Ar gas at a dew point of 0 °C with and without 500 ppm of CO2, and its ion conductive properties were evaluated. Although the lithium-ion conductivity of Li4SnS4 decreased regardless of the presence of CO2, the amount of H2S generated with CO2 was five times higher. To elucidate the underlying mechanism, X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy were used. Without CO2, hydrate Li4SnS4·4H2O formation markedly increased, whereas, with CO2, it increased a little. The difference revealed distinct deterioration mechanisms leading to a decrease in lithium-ion conductivity: without CO2, adsorbed H2O and Li4SnS4·4H2O contributed to the decrease, while with CO2, a weak acid dissociation reaction could reduce the thermodynamic stability of the moisture-exposed Li4SnS4 surface including Li4SnS4·4H2O and adsorbed H2O, promoting H2S release and carbonate formation. This was supported by the recovery of lithium-ion conductivity after vacuum heating. The concerted influence of H2O and CO2 provides valuable insights into the fundamental deterioration mechanisms in sulfide solid electrolytes that could be applied in battery manufacturing processes.

Degradation Analysis by X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy for LiNbO3 Coating of Sulfide-Based All-Solid-State Battery Cathode.

The surface coating of cathode active material in all-solid-state batteries using sulfide-based solid electrolytes is well-known to be a fundamental technology, and LiNbO3 is one of the most representative materials. The half cells using the cathode mixture of Li6PS5Cl/LiNbO3-coated LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 were exposed in harsh conditions at 60 °C and 4.25-4.55 V vs Li/Li+ and analyzed by transmission electron microscope/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (TEM/EDS) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). TEM/EDS observation shows that Nb element derived from LiNbO3 coating had remained at the interface, which means that Nb element had not migrated to the solid electrolyte and active material. On the other hand, the XAS spectra of Nb L3-edge changed corresponding to cell performance degradation. From the comparison with the spectra of the reference materials of the Li-Nb-O system, the XAS spectral changes were assigned to the decomposition reaction which released Li and O from the LiNbO3 coating. The side reaction is presumed to cause to the oxidization deterioration of sulfide electrolyte at the interface of Li6PS5Cl/LiNbO3-coated LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2.

Microscopic Degradation Mechanism of Argyrodite-Type Sulfide at the Solid Electrolyte-Cathode Interface.

Interfacial engineering of sulfide-based solid electrolyte/lithium-transition-metal oxide active materials in all-solid-state battery cathodes is vital for cell performance parameters, such as high-rate charge/discharge, long lifetime, and wide temperature range. A typical interfacial engineering method is the surface coating of the cathode active material with a buffer layer, such as LiNbO3. However, cell performance reportedly degrades under harsh environments even with a LiNbO3 coating, such as high temperatures and high cathode potentials. Therefore, we investigated the interfacial degradation mechanism focusing on the solid electrolyte side for half cells employing the cathode mixture of argyrodite-type Li6PS5Cl/LiNbO3-coated LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 exposed at 60 °C and 4.25 and 4.55 V vs Li/Li+ using transmission electron microscopy/electron diffraction (TEM/ED) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The TEM/ED results indicated that the ED pattern of the argyrodite structure disappeared and changed to an amorphous phase as the cells degraded. Moreover, the crystal phases of LiCl and Li2S appeared simultaneously. Finally, XAS analysis confirmed the decrease in the PS4 units of the argyrodite structure and the increase in local P-S-P domains with delithiation from the interfacial solid electrolyte, corresponding to the TEM/ED results. In addition, the formation of P-O bonds was confirmed during degradation at higher cathode potentials, such as 4.55 V vs Li/Li+. These results indicate that the degradation of this interfacial region determines the cell performance.

Design of Cathode Coating Using Niobate and Phosphate Hybrid Material for Sulfide-Based Solid-State Battery.

Coating the surface of the cathode active material of all-solid-state batteries with sulfide-based solid electrolytes is key for improving and enhancing the battery performance. Although lithium niobate (LiNbO3) is one of the most representative coating materials, its low durability at a highly charged potential and high temperature is an impediment to the realization of high-performance all-solid-state batteries. In this study, we developed new hybrid coating materials consisting of lithium niobate (Li-Nb-O) and lithium phosphate (Li-P-O) and investigated the influence of the ratio of P/(Nb + P) on the durability performance. The cathode half-cells, using a sulfide-based solid electrolyte Li6PS5Cl/cathode active material, LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2, coated with the new hybrid coating materials of LiPxNb1-xO3 (x = 0-1), were exposed to harsh conditions (60 °C and 4.55 V vs Li/Li+) for 120 h as a degradation test. P substitution resulted in higher durability and lower interfacial resistance. In particular, the hybrid coating with x = 0.5 performed better, in terms of capacity retention and interfacial resistance, than those with other compositions of niobate and phosphate. The coated cathode active materials were analyzed using various analytical techniques such as scanning electron microscopy/energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) to elucidate the improvement mechanism. Moreover, the degraded cathodes were observed using time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry, TEM/electron diffraction, and XAS. These analyses revealed that the Nb-O-P coordination in the hybrid coating material captured O by P. The coordination suppressed the release of O from the coating layer as a decomposition side reaction to realize a higher durability than that of LiNbO3.