Effects of Dual Task Training and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Children with Spastic Cerebral Palsy: A Pilot Randomized Control Trial.

OBJECTIVE: Compare the effectiveness of active and sham transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) during the training of a dual task in children with spastic cerebral palsy (CP). METHODS: Thirty children with CP were submitted to ten sessions of either active (n = 15) or sham (n = 15) tDCS over the motor cortex for 20 minutes during the training of a dual task. Pre-intervention, post-intervention and follow-up evaluations involved measures of functional performance, intellectual performance, functional mobility and cortical excitability. RESULTS: The combination of active tDCS and dual task training led to improvements in functional mobility as well as functional and intellectual performances one month after the end of the intervention. CONCLUSION: The combination of active tDCS and dual task training demonstrated promising effects for children with spastic CP.

DNA methylation epi-signature and biological age in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder patients.

OBJECTIVE: Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a common behavioral syndrome that begins in childhood and affects 3.4% of children worldwide. Due to its etiological complexity, there are no consistent biomarkers for ADHD, however the high heritability presented by the disorder indicates a genetic/epigenetic influence. The main epigenetic mechanism is DNA methylation, a process with an important role in gene expression and in many psychiatric disorders. Thus, our study sought to identify epi-signatures biomarkers in 29 children clinically diagnosed with ADHD. METHODS: After DNA extraction and bisulfite conversion, we performed methylation array experiment for differential methylation, ontological and biological age analysis. RESULTS: The biological response in ADHD patients was not sufficient to determine a conclusive epi-signature in our study. However, our results highlighted the interaction of energy metabolism and oxidative stress pathways in ADHD patients detected by differential methylation patterns. Furthermore, we were able to identify a marginal association between the DNAmAge and ADHD. CONCLUSION: Our study present new methylation biomarkers findings associated with energy metabolism and oxidative stress pathways, in addition to DNAmAge in ADHD patients. However, we propose that further multiethnic studies, with larger cohorts and including maternal conditions, are necessary to demonstrate a definitive association between ADHD and these methylation biomarkers.

Numerical cognition in children with cerebral palsy.

Children with Cerebral Palsy (CP) often perform poorly in mathematics. It is not yet clear to what extent mathematics difficulties in this clinical condition are similar to those observed in developmental dyscalculia. To better elucidate this issue, we conducted an exploratory cross-sectional study with a sample of children and adolescents with congenital brain injuries and educational history of problems in Mathematics. Fifty students aged 7-15 years, of both genders (28 males) participated in the study, 31 with typical development (TD) and 19 of whom diagnosed with spastic CP. Nine had hemiplegia and ten diplegia. Assessment procedures included a neuropsychological battery covering numerical cognition (ZAREKI-R) and working memory (AWMA) skills, and a computerized task for comparing non-symbolic magnitudes as a measure of number sense. Despite average intelligence coefficient, participants with CP underperformed the TD in five of the 12 ZAREKI-R subtests, as well as in the number sense and working memory tasks. scores were lower among hemiplegic children compared to diplegic, numerical cognition was impaired in all CP group, unveiling a dyscalculia secondary to neurodevelopmental impairments. Therefore, we can consider that mathematical learning difficulties in CP as being heterogeneous and associated with the immaturity of neuropsychological functions, with consequences for the development of numerical cognition.

A systematic review of transcranial direct current stimulation effects in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

BACKGROUND: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) stands out as the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder of childhood, with global prevalence ranging from 3.4% to 7•2%. Its cognitive symptoms result from the combination of complex etiological processes encompassing genetic and environmental components. Available therapeutic approaches are associated with significant challenges such as modest efficacy or side effects. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a promising tool for enhancing cognitive performance in neuropsychiatric disorders. Trials investigating its applicability in ADHD have showed propitious, however, still preliminary findings. METHODS: We performed a systemic review by searching on Medline, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, ScienceDirect and Embase using the descriptors: "attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder" or "ADHD"; and "transcranial direct current stimulation" or "tDCS"; following PRISMA guidelines. RESULTS: A total of 383 articles were identified. After removing duplicates, 45 studies were assessed for eligibility, and after careful review, 11 manuscripts applying tDCS in ADHD were included. Significant improvements in attention, inhibitory control and working memory were reported, in addition to increased brain connectivity following use of active tDCS. LIMITATIONS: The main limitation was the small number of trials investigating use of tDCS in ADHD. Study methods and outcome measures were quite variable, and generally did not include long-term follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Although the extent literature indicates promising findings, the available data remains highly preliminary. Further trials evaluating the efficacy of tDCS for ADHD, with longer follow-up, are necessary. These studies will be needed to determine the optimal protocol for clinical efficacy.

Is hospitalization really necessary during the introduction of the ketogenic diet?

The ketogenic diet is traditionally introduced with an initial period of fasting. This study compares the efficacy and tolerability of the introduction of a prediet (2:1 ratio of fat:protein + carbohydrates) before hospitalization with the aim at reducing the time of same and the period of fasting necessary to reach ketosis. For a minimum period of 1 year, adverse effects, metabolic profile, and linear growth were prospectively evaluated in 46 children. Twenty-three children received a prediet for a period of 10 days, and in the other 23 children, the ketogenic diet was introduced by hospitalization regimen after a fasting period. The use of the prediet led to a shorter fasting period of a mean 18.3 hours compared with the group without prediet, in which the fasting period was 41.3 hours (P = .001). At the end, there was no difference in the adverse effects between the groups. In those submitted to the prediet, a better adaptation to the diet and acceptance to the proposal of introducing the ketogenic diet were observed.

Kleine-Levin syndrome: interface between neurology and psychiatry.

We report the first episode of Kleine-Levin (KLS) syndrome in a 17-year-old male. The illness onset, clinical features, neuropsychological evaluation and polysomnographic recording are described. Typical symptoms hypersomnia, hyperphagia and sexual disinhibition were observed besides behavioral disturbances, polysomnographic and neuropsychological alterations. Behavioral disturbances similar to a manic episode including psychotic symptoms were relevant. The pharmacologic treatment included lithium, methylphenidate and risperidone. The introduction of risperidone aimed the control of psychotic symptoms and the persistent manifestations of hypersexuality after sleepiness control and to the best of our knowledge there are no other reports regarding risperidone use for KLS in the literature.

Revisão integrativa sobre métodos e estratégias para promoção de habilidades socioemocionais / Integrative review on methods and strategies to promote socio-emotional skills

Competências socioemocionais são um conjunto de habilidades fundamentais para o desenvolvimento integral dos indivíduos, bem como para seu sucesso nas interações sociais. Estudos longitudinais apontam o impacto dessas habilidades em relação à saúde mental e física, aprendizagem, relações afetivas e profissionais. Neste sentido, pesquisas recentes têm alertado para a importância de promover tais habilidades a partir da primeira infância. Sendo assim, o presente estudo teve como objetivo realizar uma revisão de literatura no recorte de 2008-2019, em busca de estudos que apresentem métodos e estratégias para a promoção de habilidades socioemocionais na infância e na adolescência. Foram utilizadas as bases de dados SciELO, LILACS e PePSIC. Após empregados os critérios de elegibilidade, oito estudos entraram para a revisão. Em todos os estudos, os resultados do pós-teste indicaram diminuição de comportamentos antissociais e aumento de comportamentos pró-sociais. Contudo, foi possível observar que ainda são poucas as pesquisas que visam a investigar a eficácia de programas e estratégias de intervenção e promoção de competências socioemocionais.

Socio-emotional competencies are a set of skills fundamental to the integral development of individuals, as well as to their success in social interactions. Longitudinal studies point out the impact of these skills in relation to mental and physical health, learning, affective and professional relationships. In this sense, recent research has warned of the importance of promoting such skills from early childhood. Thus, the present study aimed to carry out a review of the literature in the 2008-2019 study, in search of studies that present methods and strategies to promote socioemotional skills in childhood and adolescence. The SciELO, LILACS, and PePSIC databases were used. After employing the eligibility criteria 8 studies entered for review. In all studies, post-test results indicated a decrease in antisocial behaviors and increased pro-social behaviors. However, it was possible to observe that there are still few researches that aim to investigate the effectiveness of intervention programs and strategies and the promotion of socio-emotional competences.

Temporal discounting and emotional self-regulation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Temporal Discounting (TD) reflects a tendency to discount a reward more deeply the longer its delivery is delayed. TD tasks and behavioral scales have been used to investigate 'hot' executive functions in ADHD. The present study analyzed TD task performance shown by ADHD and control groups for correlations with emotional self-regulation metrics from two scales, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions (BRIEF) and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Children (ages 8-12) with ADHD (n=25) and controls (n=24) were assessed using material rewards (toys) for three types of task: Hypothetical (H); Hypothetical with temporal expectation (HTE); and Real (R). Between-group differences were found for the HTE task, on which the ADHD group showed a higher rate of discounting their favorite toy over time, especially at 10s and 20s. This was the only task on which performance significantly correlated with BRIEF metrics, thus suggesting associations between impulsivity and low emotional self-regulation, but no task was correlated with CBCL score. The conclusion is that tasks involving toys and HTE in particular may be used to investigate TD in children with ADHD and as a means of evaluating the interface between the reward system and emotional self-regulation.

Segurança e tolerabilidade da estimulação transcraniana por corrente contínua anódica em crianças e adolescentes com paralisia cerebral / Safety and tolerability of anodic transcranial direct current stimulation in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy tDCS safety in children with cerebral palsy

O foco deste estudo é investigar a segurança e tolerabilidade da ETCC anódica em crianças e adolescentes com paralisia cerebral (PC). Participaram desse estudo dez crianças e adolescentes com PC do tipo hemiplégica e diplégica, com idade entre oito e 17 anos (média = 11,40, dp = 2,83). Os sujeitos participaram de cinco sessões de ETCC anódica no córtex parietal posterior (CPP) direito, com o cátodo posicionado no músculo deltoide esquerdo. Após cada sessão de estimulação foi aplicado um questionário padronizado para avaliação de efeitos adversos. Os resultados revelaram os seguintes efeitos adversos: as taxas de prurido (62%), sensação de queimação (16%) e formigamento (23%). A maior parte dos efeitos foi classificada como de intensidade leve pelos participantes, demonstrando a alta tolerabilidade e segurança da ETCC em crianças e adolescentes com PC.

The focus of this study is to investigate the safety and tolerability of anodic tDCS in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy (CP). Ten children and adolescents with hemiplegic and diplegic PCs, aged eight to 17 years (mean = 11.40, dp = 2.83) participated in this study. The subjects participated in five sessions of anodic tDCS in the right posterior parietal córtex (PPC), with the cathode positioned in the left deltoid muscle. After each stimulation session, a standardized questionnaire was used to assess adverse effects. Results: the results showed the following adverse effects: pruritus rates (62%), burning sensation (16%) and tingling (23%). Most of the effects were classified as mild intensity by the participants, thus demonstrating the high tolerability and safety of tDCS in children and adolescents with CP.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in the Light of the Epigenetic Paradigm.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by a definite behavioral pattern that might lead to performance problems in the social, educational, or work environments. In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, the symptoms of ADHD were restricted to those associated with cognitive (attention deficit) and behavioral (hyperactivity/impulsivity) deficits, while deficient emotional self-regulation, a relevant source of morbidity, was left out. The etiology of it is complex, as its exact causes have not yet been fully elucidated. ADHD seems to arise from a combination of various genetic and environmental factors that alter the developing brain, resulting in structural and functional abnormalities. The aim of this paper was to review epigenetics and ADHD focused on how multidimensional mechanisms influence the behavioral phenotype.

Face Scanning in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Human Versus Dog Face Scanning.

This study used eye tracking to explore attention allocation to human and dog faces in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and typical development (TD). Significant differences were found among the three groups. TD participants looked longer at the eyes than ASD and ADHD ones, irrespective of the faces presented. In spite of this difference, groups were similar in that they looked more to the eyes than to the mouth areas of interest. The ADHD group gazed longer at the mouth region than the other groups. Furthermore, groups were also similar in that they looked more to the dog than to the human faces. The eye-tracking technology proved to be useful for behavioral investigation in different neurodevelopmental disorders.

Use of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Token Economy to Alleviate Dysfunctional Behavior in Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Medication has proved highly efficacious as a means of alleviating general symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, many patients remain functionally impaired by inappropriate behavior. The present study analyzed the use of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) with the Token-Economy (TE) technique to alleviate problem behavior for 25 participants with ADHD, all children (19 boys, mean age 10.11) on long-term methylphenidate medication, who were given 20 CBT sessions with 10 weeks of TE introduced as of session 5. Their ten most acute problem behaviors were selected and written records kept. On weekdays, parents recorded each inappropriate behavior and provided a suitable model for their actions. At weekly sessions, problem behaviors were counted and incident-free participants rewarded with a token. To analyze improvement (less frequent problem behavior), a list of 11 behavioral categories was rated: inattention, impulsivity, hyperactivity, disorganization, disobeying rules and routines, poor self-care, verbal/physical aggression, low frustration tolerance, compulsive behavior, antisocial behavior, lacking in initiative and distraction. Two CBT specialists categorized behaviors and an ADHD specialist ruled on discrepancies. Statistical analyses used were Generalized Estimating Equations with Poisson distribution and autoregressive order correlation structure. In the course of the sessions, problematic behaviors decreased significantly in seven categories: impulsiveness, hyperactivity, disorganization, disobeying rules and routine, poor self-care, low frustration tolerance, compulsive behaviors, and antisocial behaviors. Caregiver attitudes to children's inappropriate behavior were discussed and reshaped. As functional improvement was observed on applying TE for 10 weeks, this type of intervention may be useful as an auxiliary strategy combined with medication.

Attentional Profiles and White Matter Correlates in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Predominantly Inattentive Type.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a widely studied neurodevelopmental disorder. It is a highly heterogeneous condition, encompassing different types of expression. The predominantly inattentive type is the most prevalent and the most stable over the lifetime, yet it is the least-studied presentation. To increase understanding of its cognitive profile, 29 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder of predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-I) and 29 matched controls, aged 7-15 years, had their attentional abilities assessed through the Conners' continuous performance test. Diffusion tensor imaging data were collected for all of the participants using a 3.0-T MRI system. Fractional anisotropy (FA) values were obtained for 20 fiber tracts, and brain-behavior correlations were calculated for 42 of the children. The ADHD-I children differed significantly from the typically developing (TD) children with respect to attentional measures, such as the ability to maintain response-time consistency throughout the task (Hit RT SE and Variability), vigilance (Hit RT ISI and Hit RT ISI SE), processing speed (Hit RT), selective attention (Omissions), sustained attention (Hit RT Block Change), error profile (Response Style), and inhibitory control (Perseverations). Evidence of significant differences between the ADHD-I and the TD participants was not found with respect to the mean FA values in the fiber tracts analyzed. Moderate and strong correlations between performance on the attention indicators and the tract-average FA values were found for the ADHD-I group. Our results contribute to a better characterization of the attentional profile of ADHD-I individuals and suggest that in children and adolescents with ADHD-I, attentional performance is mainly associated with the white matter structure of the long associative fibers that connect anterior-posterior brain areas.

Methylphenidate use in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

A Brazilian Health Technology Assessment Bulletin (BRATS) article regarding scientific evidence of the efficacy and safety of methylphenidate for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has caused much controversy about its methods. Considering the relevance of BRATS for public health in Brazil, we critically reviewed this article by remaking the BRATS search and discussing its methods and results. Two questions were answered: did BRATS include all references available in the literature? Do the conclusions reflect the reviewed articles? The results indicate that BRATS did not include all the references from the literature on this subject and also that the proposed conclusions are different from the results of the articles chosen by the BRATS authors themselves. The articles selected by the BRATS authors showed that using methylphenidate is safe and effective. However, the BRATS final conclusion does not reflect the aforementioned and should not be used to support decisions on the use of methylphenidate.

[Bilateral occipital calcification, epilepsy and coeliac disease: case report]. / Calcificação intracraniana occipital bilateral, epilepsia e doença celíaca: relato de caso.

We report a case of a six-year-old girl with frequent diarrhea episodes associated with ferroprive anemia from 6 months of age, normal neuromotor development and partial seizures initiated in her 3rd year which was controlled with carbamazepine. CT scan in her 5th year of age demonstrated gyral calcifications in the occipital and posterior parietal regions bilaterally. MRI has shown low signal areas in the axial T2 sequences corresponding to the gyral calcifications evident on the CT. Blood investigation for coeliac disease with antigliadin, endomysial and transglutaminase antibodies was positive and the intestinal biopsy has showed villous atrophy associated with an increased number of intraepithelial lymphocytes and hypertrophic criptae compatible with coeliac disease.

Relação entre índice de motivação escolar e desempenho acadêmico de crianças com transtorno de déficit de atenção/hiperatividade e grupo controle / Relation between the academic motivation index and the academic performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and control group

INTRODUÇÃO: Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade (TDAH) é um transtorno do neurodesenvolvimento caracterizado por padrões persistentes de desatenção e/ou hiperatividade e impulsividade, que causam prejuízos no funcionamento e no desenvolvimento do indivíduo. Um dos prejuízos marcantes nessa população está relacionado à habilidade de motivação. OBJETIVO: Neste sentido, o presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar a relação entre índices de motivação escolar e desempenho acadêmico em crianças com TDAH comparadas com grupo de desenvolvimento típico. MÉTODO: Participaram 60 crianças com idade entre 6 e 12 anos, de ambos os sexos, pertencentes a escolas da rede pública e privada, sendo 30 com TDAH e 30 com desenvolvimento típico. Para avaliação da motivação escolar, foi utilizada a Escala para Avaliação da Motivação Escolar Infantojuvenil (EAME-IJ) e para avaliação do desempenho acadêmico utilizou-se o Teste de Desempenho Escolar (TDE). RESULTADOS: Nos resultados referentes ao desempenho acadêmico, as crianças com TDAH apresentaram desempenho significativamente inferior em todas as tarefas em relação às crianças do grupo com desenvolvimento típico. Na motivação escolar o grupo com TDAH apresentou menor índice de motivação intrínseca. Os resultados revelaram também correlação negativa de magnitude moderada entre motivação extrínseca e desempenho escolar. CONCLUSÃO: Os achados sugerem que as crianças com TDAH têm dificuldades para modular e autorregular seus níveis de motivação, especialmente o de motivação intrínseca, o que pode implicar em maior necessidade de recompensas externas, principalmente durante a execução de tarefas que demandam maior esforço cognitivo, como é o caso das tarefas escolares.

INTRODUCTION: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that consists of persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsiveness, which impair an individual's behavior and development. A major impairment undergone by this population has to do with motivation. OBJECTIVE: Thus, this study had the objective of analyzing the relation between academic motivation and performance indexes in children with ADHD as compared to results from a control group that exhibits typical development patterns. METHODS: A total of 60 children of both sexes, aged 6-12 years and studying in both private and public schools participated in this study. Half of the participants (30 children) has ADHD and the other half (30 children) exhibits typical development. In order to evaluate their academic motivation, we used the Rating Scale of School Motivation (EAME - IJ) and also academic performance was tested with the Academic Achievement Test (TDE). RESULTS: Regarding academic performance, children with ADHD showed significantly lower performance in all tasks when contrasted with the typical development group. As for academic motivation, the ADHD group also showed a lower level of intrinsic motivation. Results also had shown negative correlation with low magnitude between extrinsic motivation and scholar performance. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that children with ADHD have difficulty modulating and self-regulating their motivation levels, especially intrinsically, which may suggest a greater need for external rewards, mainly during the execution of tasks that demand greater cognitive effort, such as schoolwork.

Aspectos neurocientíficos da aprendizagem matemática: explorando as estruturas cognitivas inatas do cérebro / Neuroscientific aspects of mathematics learning: exploring the innate cognitive structures of the brain

Muitos estudos têm sido realizados sobre o modo como o cérebro lida com a informação matemática. Essas pesquisas têm concordado com a tese de que possuímos um módulo cerebral para o processamento de números e quantidades, na literatura referido como senso numérico. A expansão desse módulo, porém, depende de como e quanto conhecimento matemático adquirimos da cultura em que vivemos através da aprendizagem. Desta forma, esse artigo tem por objetivo discutir aspectos relacionados à aprendizagem matemática sob a ótica das neurociências, destacando achados de pesquisas relacionadas a este tema, como os modelos postulados para explicar a relação entre o cérebro e o processamento numérico, nomeadamente, Sistema Numérico Aproximado (SNA) e Modelo do Triplo Código (MTC).

Many studies have been conducted about how the brain deals with mathematical information. These researches have agreed with the assertion that we have a brain module for processing of numbers and quantities, in the literature referred to as number sense. The expansion of this module, however, depends to how much mathematical knowledge acquired and the culture we live through learning. Thus, this article aims to discuss aspects related to mathematical learning about the perspective of neuroscience, highlighting research findings related to this issue, as the models postulated to explain the relationship between the brain and the numerical processing, namely Approximate Number System (SNA) and the Triple Code Model (TCM).

The response to stress in Brazilian children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

This study assessed the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, during response to stress, through the measurement of salivary cortisol in 38 children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and its subtypes, who were matched to 38 healthy control subjects. These measures were made at four time intervals: 15 min before exposing the subjects to a stressor - the Continuous Performance Test (CPT) - and 20, 40, and 60 min after such exposure. The baseline cortisol levels were statistically similar in both groups. The mean values of cortisol at the four time intervals were not statistically different between the three subtypes of ADHD (inattentive, hyperactive-impulsive and combined); thus, the ADHD group was treated as a single group. Following the stressor test, the ADHD group had significantly higher levels of salivary cortisol than the control group at time intervals of 20 and 40 min, whereas in this latter group exposure to the CPT did not induce an increase of cortisol. These results suggest that the increased cortisol levels in the ADHD group could be due to the lack of comorbidities. In addition, these patients, when facing a computerized test, might have responded with a motivational pathway with an increase of cortisol.

Performance patterns in Conners' CPT among children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and dyslexia.

This study investigated the performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dyslexia using Conners' Continuous Performance Test (CCPT). The clinical groups were composed of 52 children with ADHD and 32 children with dyslexia. Performance in the CCPT was evaluated using ANCOVA to compare the clinical groups with the normative Brazilian sample. The ADHD group performed worse than the normative sample in almost all of the measurements, except for reaction time and response style. The dyslexia group scored higher on commissions, variability, perseverations and inconsistency in the reaction time over the six time blocks (Hit SE Block Change) than the children in the normative Brazilian sample. The ADHD and dyslexia groups differed in omission measurements, Hit RT SE, variability, perseverations, Hit RT Interstimulus Intervals (ISI) Change and Hit SE ISI Change. We thus found that the dyslexia group had specific deficit patterns, with greater response to non-target stimuli, greater perseveration and response variability, and difficulties in hit reaction time as the test progressed.