Implementing large Foot and Mouth Disease vaccination programmes for smallholder farmers: lessons from Lao PDR.

This study assessed smallholder finances and their attitudes towards the Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) vaccination programme, when 1 620 000 vaccine doses were provided for strategic administration in large ruminants in FMD 'high-risk' areas in Laos between 2012 and 2016. Farmers (n = 168) in the provinces of Xayyabouli (XYL), Xiengkhoung (XK) and Huaphan (HP), were interviewed. Over 91% of the farmers responded that their livestock were vaccinated for FMD, with over 86% ranking FMD vaccination as a good or very good intervention. No FMD cases were reported from the vaccinated provinces after May 2013. Examination of the total income per household in XYL, XK and HP indicated earnings of US$5060(±650), US$4260(±294) and US$1691(±676), respectively (P = 0.001), with 23%, 28% and 68% of the total incomes from annual sales of large ruminant, respectively. Of the farmers in XYL, XK and HP, 83%, 93% and 70% (P = 0.009) said their annual income increased compared with 2012, and 47%, 64% and 41%, respectively (P = 0.005), indicated this increase was from additional large ruminant sales. The study indicated that this large FMD vaccination programme was well regarded by participating farmers and may have provided satisfactory suppression of the disease in Laos, despite not achieving the preferred vaccination coverage. Continuation of the vaccination programme in FMD high-risk areas is suggested as desirable.

Challenges for beef production in smallholder communities with low reproductive management skills: a case study from Northern Lao PDR.

Improved large ruminant productivity is increasingly acknowledged as a pathway for the alleviation of rural poverty and food insecurity in smallholder communities in Southeast Asia; yet, in much of Laos, bovine reproductive management is practically absent. Large ruminant reproduction skills were studied, using face-to-face surveys (n=60) of the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of farmers, plus an extension of an examination of parameters of reproductive efficiency (n = 1786 cattle and 434 buffalo) in the northern provinces of Luang Prabang and Xieng Khouang. The surveys particularly involved female farmers to provide gender-disaggregated data, with females making up 38.3 % of participants. Results confirmed that KAPs of smallholder farmers on bovine reproductive management were low (34-46 %) with trends toward higher KAP scores in male survey respondents. Poor reproductive parameters were identified in both provinces, with low calving percentages of 54-75 and 45-54 % in cattle and buffalo groups, respectively, and prolonged inter-calving intervals of 14.1-19.8 and 26.0 months for the cattle and buffalo groups, respectively. Improving the reproductive efficiency of large ruminants in the northern upland regions would enable smallholder farmers to be more effectively engaged in the dramatic economic growth of the Southeast Asia region, although these findings indicate that intensive training and supportive interventions are required to improve large ruminant reproductive outcomes in communities that have low-level large ruminant husbandry skills.

The endoparasitism challenge in developing countries as goat raising develops from smallholder to commercial production systems: A study from Laos.

Progressing economic development in Southeast Asia has increased regional demand for goat meat, leading to expanding production by smallholders and recently, development of commercial farms. In Laos, an emerging export market for goats into Vietnam has led to increased goat numbers, with potential increases in risk of disease, particularly endoparasitism. A cross-sectional survey investigated the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in indigenous Kambing-Katjang goats on smallholder farms (n = 389) in 8 villages where no anthelmintic treatments were in use, providing comparisons with a case study of imported Boer crossbred goats (n = 45) on a commercial farm where intensive anthelmintic treatments were required to manage mortalities attributable to Haemonchosis. Clinical examinations, collection of faecal samples, and pathological examination on the commercial farm, accompanied collection of information on animal gender, age and body weight, with data analyses performed in Genstat. Faecal samples contained eggs of multiple endoparasitic species, with Strongyles spp. and coccidian oocysts of Eimeria spp. most prevalent. Significant associations between the presence of endoparasites and the farm type (smallholder versus commercial; p < 0.008 and 0.001) were observed, with the odds ratios of the commercial farm having Stronglyes spp. and Eimeria spp. of 1.3 (CI = 0.6-2.9) and 4.8 (CI = 2.5-9.1). Mortalities from endoparasitism were only recorded at the commercial farm, with the loss of 24 goats in the final 3 months of the dry season (Feb-April). This study identified a moderate prevalence of multiple endoparasitic species in smallholder goat farms that appeared well-tolerated, whereas in the developing commercial system, endoparasites posed significant risks to enterprise viability, even with use of anthelmintics. Further studies on endoparasite control are required if commercial tropical goat meat production is to prove sustainable and assist in addressing regional food security, plus provide a pathway to improve the livelihoods of Lao goat smallholders seeking to expand and intensify their enterprises.

Investigation of infectious reproductive pathogens of large ruminants: Are neosporosis, brucellosis, leptospirosis and BVDV of relevance in Lao PDR?

N. caninum, bovine viral diarrhoea virus, Brucella abortus and Leptospira interrogans serovar Hardjo are globally significant reproductive pathogens that cause abortion and reproductive loss in large ruminants. Prevalence information is lacking in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Laos) despite the poor reproductive performance of cattle and buffalo. Serological examination of frozen cattle (n=90) and buffalo (n=61) sera by commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays provided the first reported screening of some of these pathogens in Laos. Seroprevalence differed amongst these large ruminant species, with N. caninum, BVDV and L. interrogans serovar Hardjo antibodies found in 68.9% (95% CI±11.6), 4.9% (95% CI±5.4) and 3.3% (95% CI±4.5) of buffalo sera, respectively, and in 7.8% (95% CI±5.5), 10.0% (95% CI±6.2) and 22.2% (95% CI±8.6) of cattle sera, respectively. Buffalo sera had a significantly higher seroprevalence of N. caninum compared to cattle (p<0.001) and cattle sera had a significantly higher seroprevalence of L. interrogans serovar Hardjo compared to buffalo (p=0.003). Variability was also observed across provinces for N. caninum in buffalo (p=0.007) and for L. interrogans serovar Hardjo in cattle (p=0.071), suggesting provincial risk factors conducive to pathogen transmission. BVDV and N. caninum seropositivity were negatively associated in buffalo (p=0.018) and cattle (p=0.003). In buffalo, L. interrogans serovar Hardjo and BVDV seropositivity were associated (p=0.035, p=0.039). The identification of antibodies against three major abortifacient pathogens in Laos prompts further research to determine if infection is associated with low reproductive efficiency and the risk factors for infection. This is needed for the development of evidence based prevention strategies for improved large ruminant reproductive management among smallholders in Laos.

Household Financial Status and Gender Perspectives in Determining the Financial Impact of Foot and Mouth Disease in Lao PDR.

The socioeconomic impacts of foot and mouth disease (FMD) during 2011-12 outbreaks on large ruminant smallholders in Laos were investigated, including examination of data on gender, household financial status and farmer husbandry practices. A mix of participatory tools and survey questionnaires at the village and household level, respectively, were conducted, involving individual farmer interviews (n = 124) and group meetings with village elders to establish criteria for classification of household financial status as being 'poor, medium or well off' according to rice sufficiency, assets and household incomes. FMD-attributable financial losses were determined by inclusion of losses due to: mortality, morbidity and costs of treatments. The estimated mean financial losses due to FMD were USD 436 (±92) in the 'poor' and USD 949 (±76) in the 'well off' household categories (P < 0.001), being 128% and 49% of income from the sale of large ruminants, respectively. Variation in financial losses reflected differences in morbidity, farmer husbandry practices including frequency of observation of animals and thus recognition of FMD and choice of treatments. Of concern were adverse financial impacts of treatment especially where antibiotics were used; delays in reporting of FMD cases after observation of signs (mean of 2 days); admission that 10% of farmers had sold FMD-affected livestock; and that 22% of respondents claimed their large ruminants were cared for by females. The findings confirm that FMD has the most severe financial impact on poorer households and that females have a significant role in large ruminant production. It is recommended that livestock extension activities promote the benefits of prevention rather than treatment for FMD and encourage participation of women in biosecurity and disease risk management interventions including rapid reporting and regulatory compliance, particularly with animal movement controls and other biosecurity practices that reduce the negative impacts of FMD on regional food security and poverty reduction in rural communities.

Financial Impacts of Foot-and-Mouth Disease at Village and National Levels in Lao PDR.

To assist policies on Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) control in Laos and the Mekong region, the financial impact of recent outbreaks at village and national levels was examined. Village-level impacts were derived from recent research on financial losses due to FMD per smallholder household and number of households with FMD-affected livestock in the village. National-level impacts of FMD were determined from examination of 2011-2013 FMD reported to the Lao Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF), with the 2011 epidemic reported separately due to the large number and size of outbreaks of FMD in that year. Estimates of the national financial impact of FMD were based on (i) total FMD financial losses at the village level and (ii) the costs of FMD responses and other related costs at the DLF, provincial and district levels where FMD was reported, but excluding the costs of revenue forgone. A Monte Carlo simulation was utilized to account for likelihood of FMD over- and under-reporting. Foot-and-mouth disease was recorded in four provinces of Phonsaly, Bokeo, Xayyabouli and Champasak in three consecutive years from 2011 to 2013. However, the FMD epidemic in 2011 was more widely distributed and involved 414 villages in 14 provinces, with thousands of cases of morbidity in cattle and buffalo and some mortalities. The estimated financial losses due to FMD in 2011 were USD 30 881(±23 176) at the village level and USD 13 512 291 at the national level based on the number of villages with FMD outbreaks reported. However, when the likelihood of FMD under-reporting was accounted for, the estimated financial losses at the national level could potentially increase to USD 102 094 464 (±52 147 261), being almost 12% of the estimated farm gate value of the national large ruminant herd. These findings confirm that FMD causes substantial financial impacts in villages and to the national economy of Laos, providing justification for sustained investments in FMD control programmes.

Benefit-Cost Analysis of Foot and Mouth Disease Control in Large Ruminants in Cambodia.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in Cambodia and throughout the Greater Mekong Subregion and causes significant losses to rural smallholders owning the majority of the national large ruminant population. However, due to underreporting, paucity of knowledge of FMD impacts, limited veterinary capacity and deficits of data available for analysis, the quantifiable benefits of a national FMD control programme are unknown. To address this deficit, existing literature and research data from the 'Best practice health and husbandry of cattle, Cambodia' project conducted between 2007 and 2012, were used to develop a three-phase analysis framework to: assess the impacts of the recent widespread FMD epizootic in Cambodia in 2010, conduct a value chain analysis of the large ruminant market and estimate the costs and benefits for a national large ruminant biannual FMD vaccination programme. A trader survey conducted in 2010-2011 provided cattle and buffalo value chain information and was matched to village herd structure data to calculate a total large ruminant farm-gate value of USD 1.271 billion in 2010. Monte Carlo simulation modelling that implemented a 5-year biannual vaccination programme at a cost of USD 6.3 an animal per year identified a benefit-cost ratio of 1.40 (95% CI 0.96-2.20) when accounting for recent prices of cattle and buffalo in Cambodia and based on an expected annual incidence of 0.2 (assuming one major epizootic in the 5-year vaccination programme). Given that the majority of the large ruminants are owned by rural smallholders, and mostly the poor are involved in agricultural employment, the successful implementation of an FMD control programme in Cambodia would be expected to avoid estimated losses of USD 135 million; equivalent to 10.6% of the 2010 farm-gate value and contributing to important reductions in rural poverty and food insecurity.

Financial Impact of Foot and Mouth Disease on Large Ruminant Smallholder Farmers in the Greater Mekong Subregion.

A retrospective investigation of financial losses incurred by large ruminant smallholder farmers due to outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in 2010-12 in northern Laos was conducted in 2012. The aim was to support recommendations on sustainable transboundary animal disease control strategies in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS). Large ruminant smallholders in the three northern provinces of Luang Prabang (LPB), Xiengkhoung (XK) and Xayyabouli (XYL) were interviewed (n = 310). Financial losses were determined, including direct losses due to mortality (100% of pre-FMD sale value) and morbidity (difference between the expected sale price pre-FMD and 1 month following onset of FMD), and indirect losses due to costs of treatments. The losses due to FMD per household varied between provinces (P < 0.001) and were USD 1124, USD 862 and USD 381 in LPB, XK and XYL, respectively, being 60, 40 and 16% of annual household income. Comparison of the costs of FMD with annual household income from sales of large ruminants indicated losses of 213, 181 and 60% of the income in LPB, XK and XYL, respectively. The variation in losses between provinces was due to differences in levels of morbidity with highest in LPB, treatment methods with antibiotic use common in LPB, age of animals sold and sale prices with higher prices in XK. Partial budget analysis of biannual FMD vaccination indicated an average net benefit of USD 22 and USD 33 for cattle and buffalo, respectively. However, vaccination alone is unlikely to control FMD in the region. Promotion of multiple large ruminant health and production intervention programmes to stimulate interest in biosecurity in addition to vaccination is recommended, providing a more sustainable pathway for poverty reduction through the current expansion of livestock investments in the GMS.

Investigation of foot and mouth disease hotspots in northern Lao PDR.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an endemic transboundary disease in the Mekong region, and FMD records of reports to animal health authorities in Lao PDR between 2009 and 2011 were reviewed. FMD outbreaks occurred in 2 of 3 years in eight districts in three of the eight northern Lao PDR provinces, locations suggested as FMD 'hotspots'. The relatively higher risk of recurrence of FMD in these districts was likely due to the presence of a dense large ruminant population, extensive animal trading including transboundary movements and ineffective animal movement controls. As an understanding of the epidemiology of FMD in these 'hotspots' may offer insights into improved FMD control in the region, a study of an outbreak of FMD occurring in early 2010 following failure to vaccinate was conducted in the endemic 'hotspot' area of Paek district in Xiengkhoung province where in early 2009, a major outbreak of FMD in the district had been prevented in two villages by vaccination. The 2010 outbreak included collection of tissue samples 1 week after the onset of FMD that confirmed infection with FMD virus serotype O (Myanmar topotype) in a population of 239 large ruminants, comprising 167 cattle and 72 buffalo. A survey by interview of 30 farmers conducted in July 2010 documented high morbidity in cattle and buffalo (>90%) and identified disease risk factors, including increased trading of animals at the end of the rice harvest, plus several failures of biosecurity. In late 2010 and early 2011, a total of 40 and 72 serum samples were collected from large ruminants prior to and post-FMD vaccination respectively and tested by LPB-ELISA. Antibodies were present in the pre-vaccination samples attributable to previous exposure to FMD virus and significantly rising post-vaccination titres indicated likely temporary protection against future FMDV infection. It was concluded that to provide sufficient control of FMD in this 'hotspot', regular vaccination, particularly prior to the peak risk period in December-February, plus improved farmer knowledge of disease transmission risk and biosecurity, is required. Although low rural education standards and language barriers because of multiple ethnic groups pose a challenge for the successful delivery of extension programmes in northern Lao PDR, training to improve disease recognition and reporting plus village-level biosecurity practices is considered important in FMD 'hotspots' if sustainable regional initiatives directed at FMD control are to be achieved.

Improvement in smallholder farmer knowledge of cattle production, health and biosecurity in Southern Cambodia between 2008 and 2010.

Farmer knowledge surveys were conducted in 2008 and 2010 in Cambodia to evaluate the impact of a research project studying interventions that can improve cattle production and health, including biosecurity and practices relating to risks of transmission of transboundary diseases. The project hypothesis is that by increasing the value of smallholder-owned large ruminants through nutritional interventions and improved marketing, knowledge-based interventions including risk management for infectious diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can be implemented into a more sustainable pathway for rural development. Between 2008 and 2010, significant improvements in farmer knowledge and attitudes were recorded in three villages in three provinces of southern Cambodia. This was achieved through participatory 'applied field research', 'on the job' training plus 'formal' training programmes. No cases of FMD were recorded during the study period in the 'high-intervention' (HI) villages despite the common occurrence of the disease in a nearby 'low-intervention' and many other villages in the three provinces. Whilst it is likely that protection of these villages from FMD infection was from increasing the herd immunity by vaccination, it could also have been partly because of a decrease in risk behaviours by farmers as a result of their increasing knowledge of biosecurity. The research indicates that smallholder farmers are motivated by nutritional interventions that improve the value of their cattle 'bank' and offer better marketing opportunities. This provides a more receptive environment for introduction of disease risk management for infectious and other production limiting diseases, best implemented for smallholder farmers in Cambodia by intensive training programmes. In lieu of a widespread public awareness programme to deliver mass education of smallholder farmers in disease prevention and biosecurity, livestock development projects in South-East Asia should be encouraged to include training in disease risk management as an important intervention if the current momentum for trade in large ruminant livestock and large ruminant meat is to continue to progress and contribute to addressing global food security concerns.

Assessment of farmer knowledge of large ruminant health and production in developing village-level biosecurity in northern Lao PDR.

The purpose of this study was to determine baseline knowledge and identify knowledge gaps of farmers on biosecurity, risk of transmission of transboundary diseases and large ruminant health and production in three provinces of northern Laos, Hua Phan (HP), Luang Prabang (LPB) and Xieng Khoung (XK). The survey was conducted in six villages that are project sites for an Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) project, with two villages located in each of the three provinces. A census survey was conducted by interview with all 238 farmers participating in the ACIAR project, using a structured questionnaire. The interviews were conducted in Lao language and took 1-2 h per farmer. The answers were recorded in Lao and the survey data were translated into English and transcribed into Microsoft Excel, and a linear mixed model in the Genstat statistical analysis package was used to compare quantitative traits between the target provinces. The results showed that the prediction mean of farmer knowledge scores on parasitic disorders, infectious disease, reproduction and nutrition management were significantly different between the target provinces. The prediction mean of farmer knowledge scores on infectious disease questions ranged between 5.11 in HP to 8.54 in XK of 24 marks (P < 0.001). The prediction mean of total knowledge scores was 13.48 in LPB and 19.29 in XK of 42 marks (P < 0.001). The results indicate both the need for and scope required to attain improvements in farmer knowledge of large ruminant health and production. It was concluded that a participatory research and extension programme to address village-level biosecurity and reduce disease risks, plus enhance large ruminant production capabilities of smallholder producers, is a valid and potentially important strategy to address transboundary disease risk and rural poverty in northern Laos.