Mapping of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiases across 15 provinces of Angola.

INTRODUCTION: Schistosomiasis (SCH) and soil transmitted helminthiases (STH) have been historically recognized as a major public health problem in Angola. However, lack of reliable, country wide prevalence data on these diseases has been a major hurdle to plan and implement programme actions to target these diseases. This study aimed to characterize SCH and STH prevalence and distribution in Angola. METHODS: A country wide mapping was conducted in October 2018 (1 province) and from July to December 2019 (14 provinces) in school aged (SAC) children in 15 (of 18) provinces in Angola, using WHO protocols and procedures. A total of 640 schools and an average of 50 students per school (N = 31,938 children) were sampled. Stool and urine samples were collected and processed using the Kato-Katz method and Urine Filtration. Prevalence estimates for SCH and STH infections were calculated for each province and district with 95% confidence intervals. Factors associated with SCH and STH infection, respectively, were explored using multivariable logistic regression accounting for clustering by school. RESULTS: Of the 131 districts surveyed, 112 (85.5%) are endemic for STH, 30 (22.9%) have a prevalence above 50%, 24 (18.3%) are at moderate risk (prevalence 20%-50%), and 58 (44.3%) are at low risk (<20% prevalence); similarly, 118 (90,1%) of surveyed districts are endemic for any SCH, 2 (1.5%) are at high risk (>50% prevalence), 59 (45.0%) are at moderate risk (10%-50% prevalence), and 57 (43.5%) are at low risk (<10% prevalence). There were higher STH infection rates in the northern provinces of Malanje and Lunda Norte, and higher SCH infection rates in the southern provinces of Benguela and Huila. CONCLUSIONS: This mapping exercise provides essential information to Ministry of Health in Angola to accurately plan and implement SCH and STH control activities in the upcoming years. Data also provides a useful baseline contribution for Angola to track its progress towards the 2030 NTD roadmap targets set by WHO.

Spatial co-distribution of neglected tropical diseases in the east African great lakes region: revisiting the justification for integrated control.

OBJECTIVE: To determine spatial patterns of co-endemicity of schistosomiasis mansoni and the soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and hookworm in the Great Lakes region of East Africa, to help plan integrated neglected tropical disease programmes in this region. METHOD: Parasitological surveys were conducted in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and Burundi in 28 213 children in 404 schools. Bayesian geostatistical models were used to interpolate prevalence of these infections across the study area. Interpolated prevalence maps were overlaid to determine areas of co-endemicity. RESULTS: In the Great Lakes region, prevalence was 18.1% for Schistosoma mansoni, 50.0% for hookworm, 6.8% for A. lumbricoides and 6.8% for T. trichiura. Hookworm infection was ubiquitous, whereas S. mansoni, A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura were highly focal. Most areas were endemic (prevalence >or=10%) or hyperendemic (prevalence >or=50%) for one or more STHs, whereas endemic areas for schistosomiasis mansoni were restricted to foci adjacent large perennial water bodies. CONCLUSION: Because of the ubiquity of hookworm, treatment programmes are required for STH throughout the region but efficient schistosomiasis control should only be targeted at limited high-risk areas. Therefore, integration of schistosomiasis with STH control is only indicated in limited foci in East Africa.

An updated atlas of human helminth infections: the example of East Africa.

BACKGROUND: Reliable and updated maps of helminth (worm) infection distributions are essential to target control strategies to those populations in greatest need. Although many surveys have been conducted in endemic countries, the data are rarely available in a form that is accessible to policy makers and the managers of public health programmes. This is especially true in sub-Saharan Africa, where empirical data are seldom in the public domain. In an attempt to address the paucity of geographical information on helminth risk, this article describes the development of an updated global atlas of human helminth infection, showing the example of East Africa. METHODS: Empirical, cross-sectional estimates of infection prevalence conducted since 1980 were identified using electronic and manual search strategies of published and unpublished sources. A number of inclusion criteria were imposed for identified information, which was extracted into a standardized database. Details of survey population, diagnostic methods, sample size and numbers infected with schistosomes and soil-transmitted helminths were recorded. A unique identifier linked each record to an electronic copy of the source document, in portable document format. An attempt was made to identify the geographical location of each record using standardized geolocation procedures and the assembled data were incorporated into a geographical information system. RESULTS: At the time of writing, over 2,748 prevalence surveys were identified through multiple search strategies. Of these, 2,612 were able to be geolocated and mapped. More than half (58%) of included surveys were from grey literature or unpublished sources, underlining the importance of reviewing in-country sources. 66% of all surveys were conducted since 2000. Comprehensive, countrywide data are available for Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda. In contrast, information for Kenya and Tanzania is typically clustered in specific regions of the country, with few records from areas with very low population density and/or environmental conditions which are unfavourable for helminth transmission. Information is presented on the prevalence and geographical distribution for the major helminth species. CONCLUSION: For all five countries, the information assembled in the current atlas provides the most reliable, up-to-date and comprehensive source of data on the distribution of common helminth infections to guide the rational implementation of control efforts.

Latent class analysis to evaluate performance of point-of-care CCA for low-intensity Schistosoma mansoni infections in Burundi.

BACKGROUND: Kato-Katz examination of stool smears is the field-standard method for detecting Schistosoma mansoni infection. However, Kato-Katz misses many active infections, especially of light intensity. Point-of-care circulating cathodic antigen (CCA) is an alternative field diagnostic that is more sensitive than Kato-Katz when intensity is low, but interpretation of CCA-trace results is unclear. To evaluate trace results, we tested urine and stool specimens from 398 pupils from eight schools in Burundi using four approaches: two in Burundi and two in a laboratory in Leiden, the Netherlands. In Burundi, we used Kato-Katz and point-of-care CCA (CCAB). In Leiden, we repeated the CCA (CCAL) and also used Up-Converting Phosphor Circulating Anodic Antigen (CAA). METHODS: We applied Bayesian latent class analyses (LCA), first considering CCA traces as negative and then as positive. We used the LCA output to estimate validity of the prevalence estimates of each test in comparison to the population-level infection prevalence and estimated the proportion of trace results that were likely true positives. RESULTS: Kato-Katz yielded the lowest prevalence (6.8%), and CCAB with trace considered positive yielded the highest (53.5%). There were many more trace results recorded by CCA in Burundi (32.4%) than in Leiden (2.3%). Estimated prevalence with CAA was 46.5%. LCA indicated that Kato-Katz had the lowest sensitivity: 15.9% [Bayesian Credible Interval (BCI): 9.2-23.5%] with CCA-trace considered negative and 15.0% with trace as positive (BCI: 9.6-21.4%), implying that Kato-Katz missed approximately 85% of infections. CCAB underestimated disease prevalence when trace was considered negative and overestimated disease prevalence when trace was considered positive, by approximately 12 percentage points each way, and CAA overestimated prevalence in both models. Our results suggest that approximately 52.2% (BCI: 37.8-5.8%) of the CCAB trace readings were true infections. CONCLUSIONS: Whether measured in the laboratory or the field, CCA outperformed Kato-Katz at the low infection intensities in Burundi. CCA with trace as negative likely missed many infections, whereas CCA with trace as positive overestimated prevalence. In the absence of a field-friendly gold standard diagnostic, the use of a variety of diagnostics with differing properties will become increasingly important as programs move towards elimination of schistosomiasis. It is clear that CCA is a valuable tool for the detection and mapping of S. mansoni infection in the field and CAA may be a valuable field tool in the future.

Countrywide Reassessment of Schistosoma mansoni Infection in Burundi Using a Urine-Circulating Cathodic Antigen Rapid Test: Informing the National Control Program.

Following implementation of the national control program, a reassessment of Schistosoma mansoni prevalence was conducted in Burundi to determine the feasibility of moving toward elimination. A countrywide cluster-randomized cross-sectional study was performed in May 2014. At least 25 schools were sampled from each of five eco-epidemiological risk zones for schistosomiasis. Fifty randomly selected children 13-14 years of age per school were included for a single urine-circulating cathodic antigen (CCA) rapid test and, in a subset of schools, for duplicate Kato-Katz slide preparation from a single stool sample. A total of 17,331 children from 347 schools were tested using CCA. The overall prevalence of S. mansoni infection, when CCA trace results were considered negative, was 13.5% (zone range [zr] = 4.6-17.8%), and when CCA trace results were considered positive, it was 42.8% (zr = 34.3-49.9%). In 170 schools, prevalence of this infection determined using Kato-Katz method was 1.5% (zr = 0-2.7%). The overall mean intensity of S. mansoni infection determined using Kato-Katz was 0.85 eggs per gram (standard deviation = 10.86). A majority of schools (84%) were classified as non-endemic (prevalence = 0) using Kato-Katz; however, a similar proportion of schools were classified as endemic when CCA trace results were considered negative (85%) and nearly all (98%) were endemic when CCA trace results were considered positive. The findings of this nationwide reassessment using a CCA rapid test indicate that Schistosoma infection is still widespread in Burundi, although its average intensity is probably low. Further evidence is now needed to determine the association between CCA rapid test positivity and low-intensity disease transmission.

The impact of an 8-year mass drug administration programme on prevalence, intensity and co-infections of soil-transmitted helminthiases in Burundi.

BACKGROUND: Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are amongst the most prevalent infections in the world. Mass drug administration (MDA) programmes have become the most commonly used national interventions for endemic countries to achieve elimination. This paper aims to describe the effect of an 8-year MDA programme on the prevalence, intensity of infection and co-infection of STH in Burundi from 2007 to 2014 and critically appraise the trajectory towards STH elimination in the country. RESULTS: Annual STH parasitological surveys (specifically, a "pilot study" from 2007 to 2011, an "extension study" from 2008 to 2011, and a "national reassessment" in 2014; n = 27,658 children), showed a significant drop in prevalence of infection with any STH ("pooled STH") between baseline and 2011 in both studies, falling from 32 to 16 % in the pilot study, and from 35 to 16 % in the extension study. Most STH infections were of low intensity according to WHO classification. The national reassessment in 2014 showed that prevalence of pooled STH remained significantly below the prevalence in 2007 in both studies but there was no further decrease in STH prevalence from 2011 levels during this time. Spatial dependence analysis showed that prevalence of Trichuris trichiura and Ascaris lumbricoides had a tendency to cluster over the years, whilst only trends in spatial dependence were evident for hookworm infections. Spatial dependence fluctuated over the course of the programme for Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura. However, spatial trends in spatial dependence were evident in 2010 for Ascaris lumbricoides. Analysis of spatial clustering of intensity of infection and heavy infections revealed that the intensity changed over time for all parasites. Heavy intensity was only evident in Ascaris lumbricoides for 2008 and did not appear in proceeding years and other parasites. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that sustained annual MDA significantly reduced the prevalence of STH infection in school-age children but was unable to achieve elimination. Additionally, significant decline in prevalence was accompanied by a drop in spatial clustering of infection indicators across all sites from 2008. The lack of consistency in the results of the spatial dependence analysis highlights that MDA programmes can interrupt the normal transmission dynamics of STH parasites.

Population-based survey of active trachoma in 11 districts of Burundi.

PURPOSE: To establish that trachoma is a public health problem in Burundi, and to provide baseline data on the prevalence of active trachoma and unclean faces prior to the commencement of trachoma elimination activities in endemic districts. METHODS: For each of 11 pilot districts, eight collines (hills) (estimated population generally 1000-8000) were selected at random using a population-proportional-to-size technique; from each selected colline, one sous-colline (of which there are generally 3-5 per colline) was selected at random by simple random draw. In each selected sous-colline, all available 1-9-year-old children were examined for clinical signs of trachoma, and for signs of an unclean face (defined as eye discharge, nose discharge and/or presence of one or more flies on the face during the time taken to examine the eyes). RESULTS: A mean of 230 children were examined per sous-colline (range 44-600); in all, 20,659 children were examined in 90 sous-collines of 11 districts. (In one district, 10 rather than eight sous-collines were selected.) In three contiguous districts (Buhiga, Nyabikere and Muyinga) in the country's north-east, the prevalence of the sign "trachomatous inflammation-follicular" (TF) in 1-9-year-olds was >10%. In nine districts, the prevalence of unclean faces was >10%. CONCLUSION: Trachoma is a public health problem in Burundi. Implementation of trachoma control activities is indicated in at least Buhiga, Nyabikere and Muyinga. Further work should be carried out to establish the likely backlog of unoperated trachomatous trichiasis.