RESUMO
Dysregulation of AMPK signaling has been implicated in many human diseases, which emphasizes the importance of characterizing AMPK regulators. The tumor suppressor FLCN, responsible for the Birt-Hogg Dubé renal neoplasia syndrome (BHD), is an AMPK-binding partner but the genetic and functional links between FLCN and AMPK have not been established. Strikingly, the majority of naturally occurring FLCN mutations predisposing to BHD are predicted to produce truncated proteins unable to bind AMPK, pointing to the critical role of this interaction in the tumor suppression mechanism. Here, we demonstrate that FLCN is an evolutionarily conserved negative regulator of AMPK. Using Caenorhabditis elegans and mammalian cells, we show that loss of FLCN results in constitutive activation of AMPK which induces autophagy, inhibits apoptosis, improves cellular bioenergetics, and confers resistance to energy-depleting stresses including oxidative stress, heat, anoxia, and serum deprivation. We further show that AMPK activation conferred by FLCN loss is independent of the cellular energy state suggesting that FLCN controls the AMPK energy sensing ability. Together, our data suggest that FLCN is an evolutionarily conserved regulator of AMPK signaling that may act as a tumor suppressor by negatively regulating AMPK function.
Assuntos
Proteínas Quinases Ativadas por AMP/genética , Autofagia/genética , Caenorhabditis elegans/genética , Estrona/genética , Estresse Oxidativo/genética , Animais , Apoptose/genética , Linhagem Celular , Genes Supressores de Tumor , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Mutação/genética , Transdução de Sinais/genética , Proteínas Supressoras de Tumor/genéticaRESUMO
BACKGROUND & AIMS: The four and a half LIM-only protein 2 (FHL2) is upregulated in diverse pathological conditions. Here, we analyzed the effects of FHL2 overexpression in the liver of FHL2 transgenic mice (Apo-FHL2). METHODS: We first examined cell proliferation and apoptosis in Apo-FHL2 livers and performed partial hepatectomy to investigate high FHL2 expression in liver regeneration. Expression of FHL2 was then analyzed by real time PCR in human hepatocellular carcinoma and adjacent non-tumorous livers. Finally, the role of FHL2 in hepatocarcinogenesis was assessed using Apo-FHL2;Apc(lox/lox) mice. RESULTS: Six-fold increase in cell proliferation in transgenic livers was associated with concomitant apoptosis, resulting in normal liver mass. In Apo-FHL2 livers, both cyclin D1 and p53 were markedly increased. Evidence supporting a p53-dependent cell death mechanism was provided by the findings that FHL2 bound to and activated the p53 promoter, and that a dominant negative p53 mutant compromised FHL2-induced apoptosis in hepatic cells. Following partial hepatectomy in Apo-FHL2 mice, hepatocytes displayed advanced G1 phase entry and DNA synthesis leading to accelerated liver weight restoration. Interestingly, FHL2 upregulation in human liver specimens showed significant association with increasing inflammation score and cirrhosis. Finally, while Apo-FHL2 mice developed no tumors, the FHL2 transgene enhanced hepatocarcinogenesis induced by liver-specific deletion of the adenomatous polyposis coli gene and aberrant Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in Apc(lox/lox) animals. CONCLUSIONS: Our results implicate FHL2 in the regulation of signaling pathways that couple proliferation and cell death machineries, and underscore the important role of FHL2 in liver homeostasis and carcinogenesis.
Assuntos
Transformação Celular Neoplásica/metabolismo , Transformação Celular Neoplásica/patologia , Homeostase/fisiologia , Proteínas com Homeodomínio LIM/metabolismo , Fígado/metabolismo , Fígado/patologia , Proteínas Musculares/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismo , Animais , Apoptose/fisiologia , Carcinoma Hepatocelular/metabolismo , Carcinoma Hepatocelular/patologia , Carcinoma Hepatocelular/cirurgia , Proliferação de Células , Ciclina D1/metabolismo , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Feminino , Hepatectomia , Humanos , Proteínas com Homeodomínio LIM/genética , Fígado/cirurgia , Neoplasias Hepáticas/metabolismo , Neoplasias Hepáticas/patologia , Neoplasias Hepáticas/cirurgia , Regeneração Hepática/fisiologia , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Transgênicos , Proteínas Musculares/genética , Fatores de Transcrição/genética , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/metabolismoRESUMO
Transforming growth factor ß1 (TGF-ß1) is a master cytokine in many biological processes, including tissue homeostasis, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and wound repair. Here, we report that four and a half LIM-only protein 2 (FHL2) is a critical regulator of TGF-ß1 expression. Devoid of a DNA-binding domain, FHL2 is a transcriptional cofactor that plays the role of coactivator or corepressor, depending on the cell and promoter contexts. We detected association of FHL2 with the TGF-ß1 promoter, which showed higher activity in Fhl2-/- cells than in wild-type (WT) cells in a reporter assay. Overexpression of FHL2 abrogates the activation of the TGF-ß1 promoter, whereas the upregulation of TGF-ß1 gene transcription correlates with reduced occupancy of FHL2 on the promoter. Moreover, ablation of FHL2 facilitates recruitment of RNA polymerase II on the TGF-ß1 promoter, suggesting that FHL2 may be involved in chromatin remodeling in the control of TGF-ß1 gene transcription. Enhanced expression of TGF-ß1 mRNA and cytokine was evidenced in the livers of Fhl2-/- mice. We tested the in vivo impact of Fhl2 loss on hepatic fibrogenesis that involves TGF-ß1 activation. Fhl2-/- mice developed more severe fibrosis than their WT counterparts. These results demonstrate the repressive function of FHL2 on TGF-ß1 expression and contribute to the understanding of the TGF-ß-mediated fibrogenic response.
Assuntos
Regulação da Expressão Gênica , Proteínas com Homeodomínio LIM/fisiologia , Proteínas Musculares/fisiologia , Regiões Promotoras Genéticas , Fatores de Transcrição/fisiologia , Fator de Crescimento Transformador beta1/metabolismo , Animais , Feminino , Cirrose Hepática/genética , Cirrose Hepática/metabolismo , Cirrose Hepática/patologia , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Ativação Transcricional , Fator de Crescimento Transformador beta1/genéticaRESUMO
The Warburg effect is a tumorigenic metabolic adaptation process characterized by augmented aerobic glycolysis, which enhances cellular bioenergetics. In normal cells, energy homeostasis is controlled by AMPK; however, its role in cancer is not understood, as both AMPK-dependent tumor-promoting and -inhibiting functions were reported. Upon stress, energy levels are maintained by increased mitochondrial biogenesis and glycolysis, controlled by transcriptional coactivator PGC-1α and HIF, respectively. In normoxia, AMPK induces PGC-1α, but how HIF is activated is unclear. Germline mutations in the gene encoding the tumor suppressor folliculin (FLCN) lead to Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome, which is associated with an increased cancer risk. FLCN was identified as an AMPK binding partner, and we evaluated its role with respect to AMPK-dependent energy functions. We revealed that loss of FLCN constitutively activates AMPK, resulting in PGC-1α-mediated mitochondrial biogenesis and increased ROS production. ROS induced HIF transcriptional activity and drove Warburg metabolic reprogramming, coupling AMPK-dependent mitochondrial biogenesis to HIF-dependent metabolic changes. This reprogramming stimulated cellular bioenergetics and conferred a HIF-dependent tumorigenic advantage in FLCN-negative cancer cells. Moreover, this pathway is conserved in a BHD-derived tumor. These results indicate that FLCN inhibits tumorigenesis by preventing AMPK-dependent HIF activation and the subsequent Warburg metabolic transformation.
Assuntos
Proteínas Quinases Ativadas por AMP/metabolismo , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas/metabolismo , Proteínas Supressoras de Tumor/metabolismo , Trifosfato de Adenosina/metabolismo , Animais , Síndrome de Birt-Hogg-Dubé/etiologia , Síndrome de Birt-Hogg-Dubé/genética , Síndrome de Birt-Hogg-Dubé/metabolismo , Linhagem Celular , Transformação Celular Neoplásica , Metabolismo Energético , Fator 1 Induzível por Hipóxia/metabolismo , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Coativador 1-alfa do Receptor gama Ativado por Proliferador de Peroxissomo , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas/deficiência , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas/genética , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismo , Proteínas Supressoras de Tumor/deficiência , Proteínas Supressoras de Tumor/genéticaRESUMO
mRNA translation is thought to be the most energy-consuming process in the cell. Translation and energy metabolism are dysregulated in a variety of diseases including cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. However, the mechanisms that coordinate translation and energy metabolism in mammals remain largely unknown. The mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) stimulates mRNA translation and other anabolic processes. We demonstrate that mTORC1 controls mitochondrial activity and biogenesis by selectively promoting translation of nucleus-encoded mitochondria-related mRNAs via inhibition of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E)-binding proteins (4E-BPs). Stimulating the translation of nucleus-encoded mitochondria-related mRNAs engenders an increase in ATP production capacity, a required energy source for translation. These findings establish a feed-forward loop that links mRNA translation to oxidative phosphorylation, thereby providing a key mechanism linking aberrant mTOR signaling to conditions of abnormal cellular energy metabolism such as neoplasia and insulin resistance.
Assuntos
Proteínas Adaptadoras de Transdução de Sinal/metabolismo , Fatores de Iniciação em Eucariotos/metabolismo , Regulação da Expressão Gênica , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Renovação Mitocondrial , Complexos Multiproteicos/metabolismo , Fosfoproteínas/metabolismo , Biossíntese de Proteínas , Serina-Treonina Quinases TOR/metabolismo , Trifosfato de Adenosina/biossíntese , Animais , Autofagia/genética , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular , Núcleo Celular/metabolismo , Respiração Celular , DNA Mitocondrial/biossíntese , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Genoma Humano/genética , Humanos , Subunidade alfa do Fator 1 Induzível por Hipóxia/metabolismo , Alvo Mecanístico do Complexo 1 de Rapamicina , Alvo Mecanístico do Complexo 2 de Rapamicina , Camundongos , Proteínas Mitocondriais/metabolismo , Modelos Biológicos , Coativador 1-alfa do Receptor gama Ativado por Proliferador de Peroxissomo , RNA Mensageiro/genética , RNA Mensageiro/metabolismo , Proteínas Quinases S6 Ribossômicas/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismoRESUMO
Four-and-a-half LIM-only protein 2 (FHL2) is an important mediator in many signaling pathways. In this study, we analyzed the functions of FHL2 in nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling in the liver. We show that FHL2 enhanced tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) activity in transcriptional activation of NF-κB targets by stabilizing the protein. TRAF6 is a binding partner of FHL2 and an important component of the Toll-like receptor-NF-κB pathway. Knockdown of FHL2 in 293-hTLR4/MD2-CD14 cells impaired lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NF-κB activity, which regulates expression of inflammatory cytokines. Indeed, FHL2(-/-) macrophages showed significantly reduced production of TNF and interleukin 6 (IL-6) following LPS stimulation. TNF and IL-6 are the key cytokines that prime liver regeneration after hepatic injury. Following partial hepatectomy, FHL2(-/-) mice exhibited diminished induction of TNF and IL-6 and delayed hepatocyte regeneration. In the liver, NF-κB signaling orchestrates inflammatory cross talk between hepatocytes and hepatic immune cells that promote chemical hepatocarcinogenesis. We found that deficiency of FHL2 reduced susceptibility to diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatocarcinogenesis, correlating with the activator function of FHL2 in NF-κB signaling. Our findings demonstrate FHL2 as a positive regulator of NF-κB activity in liver regeneration and carcinogenesis and highlight the importance of FHL2 in both hepatocytes and hepatic immune cells.
Assuntos
Dietilnitrosamina/efeitos adversos , Proteínas com Homeodomínio LIM/imunologia , Neoplasias Hepáticas/induzido quimicamente , Regeneração Hepática , Fígado/patologia , Fígado/fisiologia , Proteínas Musculares/imunologia , NF-kappa B/imunologia , Fatores de Transcrição/imunologia , Animais , Linhagem Celular , Citocinas/imunologia , Deleção de Genes , Humanos , Proteínas com Homeodomínio LIM/genética , Lipopolissacarídeos/imunologia , Fígado/ultraestrutura , Neoplasias Hepáticas/imunologia , Neoplasias Hepáticas/patologia , Macrófagos/imunologia , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Camundongos , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , Camundongos Knockout , Proteínas Musculares/genética , Transdução de Sinais , Fator 6 Associado a Receptor de TNF/imunologia , Fatores de Transcrição/genéticaRESUMO
BACKGROUND: The four and a half LIM-only protein 2 (FHL2) is capable of shuttling between focal adhesion and nucleus where it signals through direct interaction with a number of proteins including beta-catenin. Although FHL2 activation has been found in various human cancers, evidence of its functional contribution to carcinogenesis has been lacking. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here we have investigated the role of FHL2 in intestinal tumorigenesis in which activation of the Wnt pathway by mutations in the adenomatous polyposis coli gene (Apc) or in beta-catenin constitutes the primary transforming event. In this murine model, introduction of a biallelic deletion of FHL2 into mutant Apc(Delta14/+) mice substantially reduces the number of intestinal adenomas but not tumor growth, suggesting a role of FHL2 in the initial steps of tumorigenesis. In the lesions, Wnt signalling is not affected by FHL2 deficiency, remaining constitutively active. Nevertheless, loss of FHL2 activity is associated with increased epithelial cell migration in intestinal epithelium, which might allow to eliminate more efficiently deleterious cells and reduce the risk of tumorigenesis. This finding may provide a mechanistic basis for tumor suppression by FHL2 deficiency. In human colorectal carcinoma but not in low-grade dysplasia, we detected up-regulation and enhanced nuclear localization of FHL2, indicating the activation of FHL2 during the development of malignancy. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our data demonstrate that FHL2 represents a critical factor in intestinal tumorigenesis.
Assuntos
Genes APC , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/genética , Neoplasias Intestinais/etiologia , Proteínas Musculares/genética , Mutação , Fatores de Transcrição/genética , Transporte Ativo do Núcleo Celular , Animais , Proliferação de Células/efeitos dos fármacos , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/metabolismo , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/farmacologia , Humanos , Neoplasias Intestinais/genética , Neoplasias Intestinais/terapia , Proteínas com Homeodomínio LIM , Camundongos , Camundongos Transgênicos , Proteínas Musculares/deficiência , Proteínas Musculares/metabolismo , Proteínas Musculares/farmacologia , Transdução de Sinais , Fatores de Transcrição/deficiência , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição/farmacologia , Ativação Transcricional , Regulação para Cima/genética , Proteínas WntRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Four and a half LIM-only protein 2 (FHL2) has been implicated in multiple signaling pathways that regulate cell growth and tissue homeostasis. We reported previously that FHL2 regulates cyclin D1 expression and that immortalized FHL2-null mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) display reduced levels of cyclin D1 and low proliferative activity. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here we address the contribution of FHL2 in cell transformation by investigating the effects of oncogenic Ras in FHL2-null context. We show that H-RasV12 provokes cell cycle arrest accompanied by accumulation of p53 and p16(INK4a) in immortalized FHL2(-/-) MEFs. These features contrast sharply with Ras transforming activity in wild type cell lines. We further show that establishment of FHL2-null cell lines differs from conventional immortalization scheme by retaining functional p19(ARF)/p53 checkpoint that is required for cell cycle arrest imposed by Ras. However, after serial passages of Ras-expressing FHL2(-/-) cells, dramatic increase in the levels of D-type cyclins and Rb phosphorylation correlates with the onset of cell proliferation and transformation without disrupting the p19(ARF)/p53 pathway. Interestingly, primary FHL2-null cells overexpressing cyclin D1 undergo a classical immortalization process leading to loss of the p19(ARF)/p53 checkpoint and susceptibility to Ras transformation. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our findings uncover a novel aspect of cellular responses to mitogenic stimulation and illustrate a critical role of FHL2 in the signalling network that implicates Ras, cyclin D1 and p53.
Assuntos
Linhagem Celular Transformada , Ciclina D1/metabolismo , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/fisiologia , Quinases Lim/metabolismo , Proteínas Musculares/fisiologia , Fatores de Transcrição/fisiologia , Proteína Supressora de Tumor p53/metabolismo , Proteínas ras/metabolismo , Animais , Linhagem Celular , Núcleo Celular/metabolismo , Inibidor p16 de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina/metabolismo , Fibroblastos/metabolismo , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/metabolismo , Proteínas com Homeodomínio LIM , Camundongos , Modelos Biológicos , Proteínas Musculares/metabolismo , Fenótipo , Transdução de Sinais , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismoRESUMO
The LIM-only protein FHL2 acts as a transcriptional modulator that positively or negatively regulates multiple signaling pathways. We recently reported that FHL2 cooperates with CREB-binding protein/p300 in the activation of beta-catenin/T cell factor target gene cyclin D1. In this paper, we demonstrate that FHL2 is associated with the cyclin D1 promoter at the T cell factor/CRE site, providing evidence that cyclin D1 is a direct target of FHL2. We show that deficiency of FHL2 greatly reduces the proliferative capacity of spontaneously immortalized mouse fibroblasts, which is associated with decreased expression of cyclin D1 and p16(INK4a), and hypophosphorylation of Rb. Reexpression of FHL2 in FHL2-null fibroblasts efficiently restores cyclin D1 levels and cell proliferative capacity, indicating that FHL2 is critical for cyclin D1 activation and cell growth. Moreover, ectopic cyclin D1 expression is sufficient to override growth inhibition of immortalized FHL2-null fibroblasts. Gene expression profiling revealed that FHL2 deficiency triggers a broad change of the cell cycle program that is associated with down-regulation of several G(1)/S and G(2)/M cyclins, E2F transcription factors, and DNA replication machinery, thus correlating with reduced cell proliferation. This change also involves down-regulation of the negative cell cycle regulators, particularly INK4 inhibitors, which could counteract the decreased expression of cyclins, allowing cells to grow. Our study illustrates that FHL2 can act on different aspects of the cell cycle program to finely regulate cell proliferation.
Assuntos
Ciclo Celular/fisiologia , Ciclinas/biossíntese , Fibroblastos/metabolismo , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/fisiologia , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/metabolismo , Proteínas Musculares/metabolismo , Elementos de Resposta/fisiologia , Fatores de Transcrição/metabolismo , Animais , Linhagem Celular , Ciclina D , Inibidor p16 de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina/genética , Inibidor p16 de Quinase Dependente de Ciclina/metabolismo , Ciclinas/genética , Fatores de Transcrição E2F/genética , Fatores de Transcrição E2F/metabolismo , Fibroblastos/citologia , Perfilação da Expressão Gênica/métodos , Proteínas de Homeodomínio/genética , Proteínas com Homeodomínio LIM , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Proteínas Musculares/genética , Fosforilação , Proteína do Retinoblastoma/genética , Proteína do Retinoblastoma/metabolismo , Transdução de Sinais/fisiologia , Fatores de Transcrição TCF/genética , Fatores de Transcrição TCF/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição/genética , beta Catenina/genética , beta Catenina/metabolismo , Fatores de Transcrição de p300-CBP/genética , Fatores de Transcrição de p300-CBP/metabolismoRESUMO
Hepatoblastoma, the most common pediatric liver cancer, is tightly linked to excessive Wnt/beta-catenin signaling. Here, we used microarray analysis to identify two tumor subclasses resembling distinct phases of liver development and a discriminating 16-gene signature. beta-catenin activated different transcriptional programs in the two tumor types, with distinctive expression of hepatic stem/progenitor markers in immature tumors. This highly proliferating subclass was typified by gains of chromosomes 8q and 2p and upregulated Myc signaling. Myc-induced hepatoblastoma-like tumors in mice strikingly resembled the human immature subtype, and Myc downregulation in hepatoblastoma cells impaired tumorigenesis in vivo. Remarkably, the 16-gene signature discriminated invasive and metastatic hepatoblastomas and predicted prognosis with high accuracy.