ER-trafficking triggers NRF1 ubiquitination to promote its proteolytic activation.

The transcription factor NRF1 resides in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is constantly transported to the cytosol for proteasomal degradation. However, when the proteasome is defective, NRF1 escapes degradation and undergoes proteolytic cleavage by the protease DDI2, generating a transcriptionally active form that restores proteostasis, including proteasome function. The mechanisms that regulate NRF1 proteolytic activation and transcriptional potential remain poorly understood. This study demonstrates that the ER is a crucial regulator of NRF1 function by orchestrating its ubiquitination through the E3 ubiquitin ligase HRD1. We show that HRD1-mediated NRF1 ubiquitination is necessary for DDI2-mediated processing in cells. Furthermore, we found that deficiency in both RAD23A and RAD23B impaired DDI2-mediated NRF1 processing, indicating that these genes are essential components of the DDI2 proteolytic machinery. Our findings highlight the intricate mechanism by which the ER activates NRF1 to coordinate the transcriptional activity of an adaptation response in cells.

The aspartyl protease DDI2 drives adaptation to proteasome inhibition in multiple myeloma.

Proteasome inhibitors, such as bortezomib, are first-line therapy against multiple myeloma (MM). Unfortunately, patients frequently become refractory to this treatment. The transcription factor NRF1 has been proposed to initiate an adaptation program that regulates proteasome levels. In the context of proteasome inhibition, the cytosolic protease DDI2 cleaves NRF1 to release an active fragment that translocates to the nucleus to promote the transcription of new proteasome subunits. However, the contribution of the DDI2-NRF1 pathway to bortezomib resistance is poorly understood. Here we show that upon prolonged bortezomib treatment, MM cells become resistant to proteasome inhibition by increasing the expression of DDI2 and consequently activation of NRF1. Furthermore, we found that many MM cells became more sensitive to proteasome impairment in the context of DDI2 deficiency. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that both the protease and the HDD domains of DDI2 are required to activate NRF1. Finally, we show that partial inhibition of the DDI2-protease domain with the antiviral drug nelfinavir increased bortezomib susceptibility in treated MM cells. Altogether, these findings define the DDI2-NRF1 pathway as an essential program contributing to proteasome inhibition responses and identifying DDI2 domains that could be targets of interest in bortezomib-treated MM patients.

The protease DDI2 regulates NRF1 activation in response to cadmium toxicity.

DNA-damage inducible 1 homolog 2 (DDI2) is a protease that activates the transcription factor NRF1. Cellular models have shown that this pathway contributes to cell-stress adaptation, for example, on proteasome inhibition. However, DDI2 physiological function is unknown. Ddi2 Knock-out (KO) mice were embryonic lethal. Therefore, we generated liver-specific Ddi2-KO animals and used comprehensive genetic analysis to identify the molecular pathways regulated by DDI2. Here, we demonstrate that DDI2 contributes to metallothionein (MT) expression in mouse and human hepatocytes at basal and upon cadmium (Cd) exposure. This transcriptional program is dependent on DDI2-mediated NRF1 proteolytic maturation. In contrast, NRF1 homolog NRF2 does not contribute to MT production. Mechanistically, we observed that Cd exposure inhibits proteasome activity, resulting in DDI2-mediated NRF1 proteolytic maturation. In line with these findings, DDI2 deficiency sensitizes cells to Cd toxicity. This study identifies a function for DDI2 that links proteasome homeostasis to heavy metal mediated toxicity.