Neurotherapeutic effects of novel HO-1 inhibitors in vitro and in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) encoded by the HMOX1 gene is a 32-kDa stress protein that catabolizes heme to biliverdin, free iron, and carbon monoxide (CO). Glial HO-1 is over-expressed in the CNS of subjects with Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and multiple sclerosis (MS). The HMOX1 gene is exquisitely sensitive to oxidative stress and is induced in brain and other tissues in various models of disease and trauma. Induction of the glial HMOX1 gene may lead to pathological brain iron deposition, intracellular oxidative damage, and bioenergetic failure in AD and other human CNS disorders such as PD and MS. Therefore, targeted suppression of glial HO-1 hyperactivity may prove to be a rational and effective therapeutic intervention in AD and related neurodegenerative disorders. In this study, we report the effects of QC-47, QC-56, and OB-28, novel azole-based competitive and reversible inhibitors of HO-1, on oxidative damage to whole-cell and mitochondrial compartments in rat astrocytes transfected with the HMOX1 gene. We also report the effect of OB-28 on the behavior and neuropathology of APP(swe)/PS1(∆E9) mice. OB-28 was found to reduce oxidative damage to whole-cell and mitochondrial compartments in rat astrocytes transfected with the HMOX1 gene. Moreover, OB-28 was found to significantly counter behavioral deficits and neuropathological alterations in APP(swe)/PS1(∆E9) mice. Attenuation of AD-associated behavioral deficits and neuropathological changes suggests that HO-1 may be a promising target for neuroprotective intervention in AD and other neurodegenerative diseases. We propose that the targeted suppression of glial heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) hyperactivity may prove to be a rational and effective therapeutic intervention in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related neurodegenerative disorders. We report attenuation by a selective HO-1 inhibitor of oxidative damage to whole-cell and mitochondrial compartments in astrocytes in vitro and amelioration of behavioral anomalies in a transgenic mouse model of AD.

XRCC1 haploinsufficiency in mice has little effect on aging, but adversely modifies exposure-dependent susceptibility.

Oxidative DNA damage plays a role in disease development and the aging process. A prominent participant in orchestrating the repair of oxidative DNA damage, particularly single-strand breaks, is the scaffold protein XRCC1. A series of chronological and biological aging parameters in XRCC1 heterozygous (HZ) mice were examined. HZ and wild-type (WT) C57BL/6 mice exhibit a similar median lifespan of ~26 months and a nearly identical maximal life expectancy of ~37 months. However, a number of HZ animals (7 of 92) showed a propensity for abdominal organ rupture, which may stem from developmental abnormalities given the prominent role of XRCC1 in endoderm and mesoderm formation. For other end-points evaluated-weight, fat composition, blood chemistries, condition of major organs, tissues and relevant cell types, behavior, brain volume and function, and chromosome and telomere integrity-HZ mice exhibited by-and-large a normal phenotype. Treatment of animals with the alkylating agent azoxymethane resulted in both liver toxicity and an increased incidence of precancerous lesions in the colon of HZ mice. Our study indicates that XRCC1 haploinsufficiency in mammals has little effect on chronological longevity and many key biological markers of aging in the absence of environmental challenges, but may adversely affect normal animal development or increase disease susceptibility to a relevant genotoxic exposure.

Resveratrol improves health and survival of mice on a high-calorie diet.

Resveratrol (3,5,4'-trihydroxystilbene) extends the lifespan of diverse species including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. In these organisms, lifespan extension is dependent on Sir2, a conserved deacetylase proposed to underlie the beneficial effects of caloric restriction. Here we show that resveratrol shifts the physiology of middle-aged mice on a high-calorie diet towards that of mice on a standard diet and significantly increases their survival. Resveratrol produces changes associated with longer lifespan, including increased insulin sensitivity, reduced insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-I) levels, increased AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1alpha (PGC-1alpha) activity, increased mitochondrial number, and improved motor function. Parametric analysis of gene set enrichment revealed that resveratrol opposed the effects of the high-calorie diet in 144 out of 153 significantly altered pathways. These data show that improving general health in mammals using small molecules is an attainable goal, and point to new approaches for treating obesity-related disorders and diseases of ageing.

Interleukin-15 receptor is essential to facilitate GABA transmission and hippocampal-dependent memory.

Interleukin-15 (IL15) is a cytokine produced by normal brain, but the functions of the IL15 system in normal adults are not yet clear. The hypothesis that the hippocampal IL15 system is essential for memory consolidation was tested by use of IL15Ralpha knock-out mice in behavioral, biochemical, immunohistological, and electron microscopic analyses. The knock-out mice showed deficits in memory, determined by the Stone T-maze and fear conditioning. In their hippocampi, the concentration of GABA was significantly lower. There were region-specific changes of the GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), with increased GAD-67-immunopositive interneurons in the stratum oriens of the CA1 region of the hippocampus, accompanied by nonsignificant reduction of GAD-67 synapses in the CA3 region. Western blotting showed an increase of GAD-65, but not GAD-67, in the hippocampal homogenate. The ultrastructure of the hippocampus remained intact in the knock-out mice. To further test the hypothesis that IL15 directly modulates GABA turnover by reuptake mechanisms, the dose-response relationship of IL15 on (3)H-GABA uptake was determined in two neuronal cell lines. The effective and nontoxic dose was further used in the synaptosomal uptake studies. IL15 decreased the uptake of (3)H-GABA in synaptosomes from the forebrain of wild-type mice. Consistent with this, IL15Ralpha knock-out mice had increased synaptosomal uptake of (3)H-GABA. Overall, the results show novel functions of a unique cytokine in normal hippocampal activity by regulating GABA transmission.

Characterization and Mechanisms of Action of Avocado Extract Enriched in Mannoheptulose as a Candidate Calorie Restriction Mimetic.

Increased consumer interest in the avocado (Persea americana or Persea gratissima) has been attributed to established health benefits of this fruit associated with a wide range of ingredients. In search of effective calorie restriction mimetics (CRM), we present herein a consideration of possible health benefits of the rare sugar, mannoheptulose (MH), which acts as an intracellular glycolytic inhibitor and presents the highest concentration of this inhibitor in unripe avocados. A method for producing an extract of unripe avocado (AvX) to enrich concentrations of MH is described. Experiments using myocyte cultures demonstrated a pattern of CRM-like responses when treated with AvX. In vivo experiments confirmed that orally consumed AvX is bioavailable in both mice and dogs, as observed in urine and blood samples. Additional experiments in both these species demonstrated CRM-like improvements in glucose and insulin responses. In sum, the MH-enriched AvX exhibits promise as a CRM.

An Avocado Extract Enriched in Mannoheptulose Prevents the Negative Effects of a High-Fat Diet in Mice.

Beginning at 16 weeks of age and continuing for 44 weeks, male C57BL/6J were fed either a control (CON) diet; a high-fat (HF) diet (60% unsaturated); or the HF diet containing an extract of unripe avocados (AvX) enriched in the 7-carbon sugar mannoheptulose (MH), designed to act as a glycolytic inhibitor (HF + MH). Compared to the CON diet, mice on the HF diet exhibited higher body weights; body fat; blood lipids; and leptin with reduced adiponectin levels, insulin sensitivity, VO2max, and falls from a rotarod. Mice on the HF + MH diet were completely protected against these changes in the absence of significant diet effects on food intake. Compared to the CON diet, oxidative stress was also increased by the HF diet indicated by higher levels of total reactive oxygen species, superoxide, and peroxynitrite measured in liver samples by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, whereas the HF + MH diet attenuated these changes. Compared to the CON, the HF diet increased signaling in the mechanistic target of the rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, and the addition of the MH-enriched AvX to this diet attenuated these changes. Beyond generating further interest in the health benefits of avocados, these results draw further new attention to the effects of this rare sugar, MH, as a botanical intervention for preventing obesity.

High fat diet increases hippocampal oxidative stress and cognitive impairment in aged mice: implications for decreased Nrf2 signaling.

Long term consumption of a high fat diet (HFD) contributes to increased morbidity and mortality. Yet the specific effects of HFD consumption on brain aging are poorly understood. In the present study 20-month old male C57Bl/6 mice were fed either 'western diet' (41% fat), very high fat lard diet (60% fat), or corresponding control diets for 16 weeks and then assessed for changes in metabolism and brain homeostasis. Although both HFDs increased adiposity and fasting blood glucose, only the high fat lard diet increased age-related oxidative damage (protein carbonyls) and impaired retention in the behavioral test. This selective increase in oxidative damage and cognitive decline was also associated with a decline in NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) levels and Nrf2 activity, suggesting a potential role for decreased antioxidant response. Taken together, these data suggest that while adiposity and insulin resistance following HFD consumption are linked to increased morbidity, the relationship between these factors and brain homeostasis during aging is not a linear relationship. More specifically, these data implicate impaired Nrf2 signaling and increased cerebral oxidative stress as mechanisms underlying HFD-induced declines in cognitive performance in the aged brain.

Dietary restriction mitigates cocaine-induced alterations of olfactory bulb cellular plasticity and gene expression, and behavior.

Because the olfactory system plays a major role in food consumption, and because 'food addiction' and associated morbidities have reached epidemic proportions, we tested the hypothesis that dietary energy restriction can modify adverse effects of cocaine on behavior and olfactory cellular and molecular plasticity. Mice maintained on an alternate day fasting (ADF) diet exhibited increased baseline locomotion and increased cocaine-sensitized locomotion during cocaine conditioning, despite no change in cocaine conditioned place preference, compared with mice fed ad libitum. Levels of dopamine and its metabolites in the olfactory bulb (OB) were suppressed in mice on the ADF diet compared with mice on the control diet, independent of acute or chronic cocaine treatment. The expression of several enzymes involved in dopamine metabolism including tyrosine hydroxylase, monoamine oxidases A and B, and catechol-O-methyltransferase were significantly reduced in OBs of mice on the ADF diet. Both acute and chronic administration of cocaine suppressed the production of new OB cells, and this effect of cocaine was attenuated in mice on the ADF diet. Cocaine administration to mice on the control diet resulted in up-regulation of OB genes involved in mitochondrial energy metabolism, synaptic plasticity, cellular stress responses, and calcium- and cAMP-mediated signaling, whereas multiple olfactory receptor genes were down-regulated by cocaine treatment. ADF abolished many of the effects of cocaine on OB gene expression. Our findings reveal that dietary energy intake modifies the neural substrates underlying some of the behavioral and physiological responses to repeated cocaine treatment, and also suggest novel roles for the olfactory system in addiction. The data further suggest that modification of dietary energy intake could provide a novel potential approach to addiction treatments.

Effects of high fat diet on Morris maze performance, oxidative stress, and inflammation in rats: contributions of maternal diet.

This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of prenatal and postnatal exposure to high fat diet on the brain. Female rats were divided into high fat diet (HFD) and control diet (CD) groups 4 weeks prior to breeding and throughout gestation and lactation. After weaning, male progeny were placed on a chow diet until 8 weeks old, and then segregated into HFD or CD groups. At 20 weeks old, rats were evaluated in the Morris water maze, and markers of oxidative stress and inflammation were documented in the brain. In comparison to rats fed CD, cognitive decline in HFD progeny from HFD dams manifested as a decline in retention, but not acquisition, in the water maze. HFD was also associated with significant increases in 3-nitrotyrosine, inducible nitric oxide synthase, IL-6, and glial markers Iba-1 and GFAP, with the largest increases frequently observed in HFD animals born to HFD dams. Thus, these data collectively suggest that HFD increases oxidative and inflammatory signaling in the brain, and further indicate that maternal HFD consumption might sensitize offspring to the detrimental effects of HFD.

Accelerated cognitive aging in diabetic rats is prevented by lowering corticosterone levels.

Diabetes and normal aging are both characterized by increases in levels of glucocorticoids. Because long-term exposure to elevated glucocorticoids can be detrimental to hippocampal function, we evaluated the performance of young diabetic rats in the 14-unit T-maze, a task that is sensitive to hippocampal deficits. To assess the contribution of diabetes-induced elevations in corticosterone levels, we examined maze learning in diabetic rats that had levels of corticosterone 'clamped' through adrenalectomy and low-dose corticosterone replacement. For comparison, we also tested a separate group of young and aged rats in the maze. Adrenally intact diabetic rats learned poorly in the 14-unit T-maze. Preventing the increases in corticosterone levels that accompanies the onset of experimental diabetes also prevented deficits in complex maze learning. The pattern of errors made by adrenally intact diabetic rats was similar to the pattern of errors made by aged rats, suggesting that the cognitive profiles of diabetic and aged rats share common features.

Sildenafil citrate attenuates a complex maze impairment induced by intracerebroventricular infusion of the NOS inhibitor Nomega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester.

In a previous study, our laboratory reported that sildenafil citrate, a cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor, reversed a learning impairment in rats induced by systemic inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (60 mg/kg, i.p., Nomega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester; L-NAME). To limit the peripheral effects of L-NAME and further localize the site of action of sildenafil, L-NAME (48 microg, i.c.v.) was infused bilaterally into the lateral cerebral ventricles 30 min prior to maze training. Saline or sildenafil citrate (1.5 or 3.0 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered systemically 15 min before training. Drug injections occurred 24 h after pretraining rats to avoid foot shock on a one-way active avoidance straight runway. Following drug treatment, the rats received 15 training trials on a 14-unit T-maze task that requires learning a complex sequence of turns to avoid mild foot shock. This complex maze paradigm is sensitive to aging and blockade of cholinergic, N-methyl-D-aspartate and nitric oxide signaling systems. Behavioral measures of performance included deviations from the correct pathway (errors), runtime from start to goal (latency), shock frequency and shock duration. Statistical analysis revealed that central infusion of L-NAME impaired maze performance and that sildenafil (3.0 mg/kg) significantly attenuated the impairment. These results suggest that sildenafil citrate may serve as a cognitive enhancer by modulating central nitric oxide/cGMP signal transduction following N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation. This pathway has been implicated in age-related cognitive decline and may be a useful target for pharmacological intervention of neurodegenerative disease.

Phosphodiesterase inhibition facilitates cognitive restoration in rodent models of age-related memory decline.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibition with the drugs sildenafil and vardenafil can enhance spatial performance and object recognition in rodent models of learning and memory. OBJECTIVE: We review recent studies on PDE5 inhibition and report novel data that specifically tests the systemic effects of both pharmacological agents in aged rats using two different spatial learning/memory paradigms. METHODS: The 14-unit T-maze was used as a test of egocentric spatial processing that requires rats to learn a series of left/right turns to avoid mild footshock. The Morris water maze is a test of allocentric spatial learning that requires the acquisition of place information to localize a hidden platform relative to distal room cues. RESULTS: In both cases, acquisition (i.e., learning performance) was not improved, however after a one week drug washout period, aged animals demonstrated improved spatial memory retention compared to aged controls, ruling out simple performance effects. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are discussed in relation to recent reports on the use of PDE inhibitors to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia and age-related memory impairments. While some report promising pre-clinical results, others note that PDE5 may not be an appropriate target in AD due to a lack of localization within critical brain structures where therapeutic activity is needed. Despite these limitations, PDE5 inhibition may produce beneficial effects via several mechanisms that target predisposing risk factors leading to increased incidence of memory impairment in aged individuals and influence memory consolidation mechanisms that preserve long-term retention of cognitive information.

Dietary resistant starch improves selected brain and behavioral functions in adult and aged rodents.

Resistant starch (RS) is a dietary fiber that exerts multiple beneficial effects. The current study explored the effects of dietary RS on selected brain and behavioral functions in adult and aged rodents. Because glucokinase (GK) expression in hypothalamic arcuate nucleus and area postrema of the brainstem is important for brain glucose sensing, GK mRNA was measured by brain nuclei microdissection and PCR. Adult RS-fed rats had a higher GK mRNA than controls in both brain nuclei, an indicator of improved brain glucose sensing. Next, we tested whether dietary RS improve selected behaviors in aged mice. RS-fed aged mice exhibited (i) an increased eating responses to fasting, a behavioral indicator of improvement in aged brain glucose sensing; (ii) a longer latency to fall from an accelerating rotarod, a behavioral indicator of improved motor coordination; and (iii) a higher serum active glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). Then, GLP-1 receptor null (GLP-1RKO) mice were used to test the role of GLP-1 in brain glucose sensing, and they exhibited impaired eating responses to fasting. We conclude that in rodents (i) dietary RS improves two important indicators of brain function: glucose sensing and motor coordination, and (ii) GLP-1 is important in the optimal feeding response to a fast.

Feed efficiency, food choice, and food reward behaviors in young and old Fischer rats.

Increased susceptibility to energy imbalance and anorexia in old age are risk factors for malnutrition during aging, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Here, we explored changes in taste-guided hedonic value ("liking") and motivation to obtain ("wanting") palatable foods as potential mediators of age-associated anorexia and weight loss in old Fischer-344 rats. "Liking" as measured by the number of positive hedonic orofacial responses to sucrose and corn oil was not different in old compared with young rats. Taste-guided, low effort "wanting" as measured by the number of licks per 10 seconds was also not different, although old rats exhibited a slight oromotor impairment as revealed by significantly increased interlick intervals. Medium effort "wanting" as measured by performance in the incentive runway was significantly decreased in old versus young rats. Although decreased net running speed was partially accountable, significantly increased duration of distractions suggested additional deficits in motivation and/or reinforcement learning. Together with early satiation on corn oil but not sucrose in aged rats, these changes are likely to have resulted in the significantly greater sucrose preference of old rats in 12-hour tests, and may ultimately lead to reduced energy intake and weight loss.

Age-associated learning and memory deficits in two mouse versions of the Stone T-maze.

We have previously reported that a modified Stone T-maze (STM), using escape from water as motivation, was effective in evaluating learning and memory ability in young C57/BL6 mice. Here we report on the effectiveness and sensitivity of the STM in the assessment of age-related learning and memory deficits in mice using either escape from foot shock or water as the motivational manipulations. C57BL/6Nia mice 7-, 12-, 20- and 24-months old received 15 massed trials in the escape from foot shock motivated STM while C57BL/6Nia mice 5-, 12-, and 25-months old were tested in the escape from water STM. Analysis of errors, the main performance variable, revealed similar results in both versions of the task with younger mice making fewer errors. Notably, mice of all ages in the water-motivated version moved quickly through the maze, while all ages of mice in the shock-motivated version tended to wait for shock to be initiated to move forward. Overall, both versions of the STM appear to be sensitive to age-related changes in learning and memory and provide an alternative to other testing paradigms such as the Morris water maze which are susceptible to performance confounds which can lead to uninterpretable results.

Tolerance, fermentation, and cytokine expression in healthy aged male C57BL/6J mice fed resistant starch.

Health benefits of resistant starch (RS), a dietary fermentable fiber, have been well documented in young, but not in old populations. As the essential step of more comprehensive evaluations of RS on healthy aging, we examined the effects of dietary RS on tolerance, colonic fermentation, and cytokine expression in aged mice. Healthy older (18-20 months) C57BL/6J male mice were fed control, 18% RS, or 36% RS diets for 10 weeks. Body weight gain, body composition, and fat pad weights did not differ among the three groups after 10 weeks, indicating good tolerance of the RS diet. Fermentation indicators (cecum weights, and cecal proglucagon and PYY mRNA expression) were enhanced in an RS dose-dependent manner (p<0.01). Serum concentrations of soluble cytokine receptors (sTNF-Rb, sIL-4R, sIL-2Rα, sVEGFR1, and sRAGE) and TNFα expression (gene and protein) in visceral fat did not differ significantly among groups. Adiponectin protein concentrations, but not gene expression, were greater in epididymal fat of the 36% RS versus control groups (p<0.05). As a conclusion in aged mice, dietary RS is well tolerated, fermented in the colon, and stimulates colonic expression of proglucagon and PYY mRNA, and adiponectin protein in visceral fat.

Effect of intrastriatal mesenchymal stromal cell injection on progression of a murine model of Krabbe disease.

One of a family of devastating lysosomal storage disorders, Krabbe disease is characterized by demyelination, psychosine accumulation, and inflammation. Affected infants rarely survive longer than 2 years. Using the twitcher mouse model of the disease, this study evaluated the potential of intrastriatal injection of adipose or bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) as a treatment option. Neonatal pups were injected with MSCs at 3-4 days of age and subjected to a battery of behavioral tests beginning at 15 days. While MSC injection failed to increase lifespan of twitchers, improvements in rotarod performance and twitching severity were observed at 27-38 days of age using MSCs derived from bone marrow. This study tested several different tasks developed in adult mice for evaluation of disease progression in immature twitchers. Rotarod was both reliable and extremely sensitive. Automated gait analysis using the Treadscan program was also useful for early evaluation of differences prior to overt gait dysfunction. Finally, this study represents the first use of the Stone T-maze in immature mice. Validation of rotarod and automated gait analysis for detection of subtle differences in disease progression is important for early stage efforts to develop treatments for juvenile disorders.

Cognitive impairment following high fat diet consumption is associated with brain inflammation.

C57Bl/6 mice were administered a high fat, Western diet (WD, 41% fat) or a very high fat lard diet (HFL, 60% fat), and evaluated for cognitive ability using the Stone T-maze and for biochemical markers of brain inflammation. WD consumption resulted in significantly increased body weight and astrocyte reactivity, but not impaired cognition, microglial reactivity, or heightened cytokine levels. HFL increased body weight, and impaired cognition, increased brain inflammation, and decreased BDNF. Collectively, these data suggest that while different diet formulations can increase body weight, the ability of high fat diets to disrupt cognition is linked to brain inflammation.

NOX activity in brain aging: exacerbation by high fat diet.

This study describes how age and high fat diet affect the profile of NADPH oxidase (NOX). Specifically, NOX activity and subunit expression were evaluated in the frontal cerebral cortex of 7-, 16-, and 24-month old mice following a 4-month exposure to either Western diet (WD, 41% calories from fat) or very high fat lard diet (VHFD, 60% calories from fat). Data reveal a significant effect of age in on NOX activity, and show that NOX activity was only increased by VHFD, and only in 24-month old mice. NOX subunit expression was also increased by diet only in older mice. Quantification of protein carbonyls revealed significant age-related increases in protein oxidation, and indicate that only aged mice respond to high fat diet with enhanced protein oxidation. Histological analyses indicate prominent neuronal localization of both NOX subunits and protein carbonylation. Finally, data indicate that changes in reactive microgliosis, but not astrocytosis, mirror the pattern of diet-induced NOX activation and protein oxidation. Collectively, these data show that both age and dietary fat drive NOX activation, and further indicate that aged mice are preferentially sensitive to the effects of high fat diet. These data also suggest that high fat diets might exacerbate age-related oxidative stress in the brain via increased NOX.

Metabolic and neurologic consequences of chronic lopinavir/ritonavir administration to C57BL/6 mice.

It is well established that HIV antiretroviral drugs, particularly protease inhibitors, frequently elicit a metabolic syndrome that may include hyperlipidemia, lipodystrophy, and insulin resistance. Metabolic dysfunction in non-HIV-infected subjects has been repeatedly associated with cognitive impairment in epidemiological and experimental studies, but it is not yet understood if antiretroviral therapy-induced metabolic syndrome might contribute to HIV-associated neurologic decline. To determine if protease inhibitor-induced metabolic dysfunction in mice is accompanied by adverse neurologic effects, C57BL/6 mice were given combined lopinavir/ritonavir (50/12.5-200/50 mg/kg) daily for 3 weeks. Data show that lopinavir/ritonavir administration caused significant metabolic derangement, including alterations in body weight and fat mass, as well as dose-dependent patterns of hyperlipidemia, hypoadiponectinemia, hypoleptinemia, and hyperinsulinemia. Evaluation of neurologic function revealed that even the lowest dose of lopinavir/ritonavir caused significant cognitive impairment assessed in multi-unit T-maze, but did not affect motor functions assessed as rotarod performance. Collectively, our results indicate that repeated lopinavir/ritonavir administration produces cognitive as well as metabolic impairments, and suggest that the development of selective aspects of metabolic syndrome in HIV patients could contribute to HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders.