Reading skills in males with 47,XXY: Risk factors and the influence of hormonal replacement therapy (HRT).

PURPOSE: 47,XXY is often associated with reduced expressive language and literacy skills. This retrospective cross-sectional study investigated risk factors (hormone replacement deficiency, pre-or postnatal diagnosis, and history of family learning disabilities [FLDs]) associated with reading skills in 152 males. METHODS: We analyzed Woodcock Reading Mastery Test scores among 7 prenatally diagnosed male hormone replacement therapy (HRT) groups using analysis of variance along with analysis of variance and 2 postnatally diagnosed male HRT groups (No-T and T) using t tests. Treated prenatally diagnosed males with FLDs were compared with an identically treated prenatal HRT group with no history of FLDs using a t test. RESULTS: In prenatally diagnosed males, significant treatment differences were observed on several reading scales (eg, total reading: χ2 = 17.96, P = .006), in which the highest modality HRT group (mean [M] =119.87) outperformed the untreated group (M = 99.88). In the postnatal analysis, we observed a significant effect of treatment on basic skills (P = .01). Despite equal HRT status, males with FLDs (M = 105.79) exhibited reduced total reading skills compared with those in the no FLD group (P = 0.0006). CONCLUSION: Our findings in this pilot study reveal that the most optimal reading trajectory is associated with a prenatal diagnosis, absence of FLDs, and the highest modality HRT.

The behavioral profile of 49,XXXXY and the potential impact of testosterone replacement therapy.

PURPOSE: 49,XXXXY (1:85,000-100,000) is a rare sex chromosome aneuploidy that often presents with complex musculoskeletal abnormalities, decreased cognitive capabilities, speech and language dysfunction, and behavioral complications. Hormonal replacement therapy, or testosterone replacement therapy, is associated with improved neurodevelopmental and behavioral outcomes in males with 49,XXXXY. Two forms of testosterone replacement therapy, early hormonal treatment (EHT) and hormonal booster therapy (HBT), are associated with improved neurodevelopmental and behavioral outcomes in these boys. This study investigates the impact of EHT and HBT on behavioral symptoms in males with 49,XXXXY. METHODS: A total of 59 individuals were divided into 4 groups: 19 no testosterone (no-T), 23 EHT, 6 HBT, and 11 EHT and HBT. An analysis of variance examined group differences on the Child Behavior Checklist and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function ranging from 5 to 18 years. RESULTS: Although no differences were identified on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, the 3 hormonal replacement therapy groups presented with decreased complications on numerous variables on the Child Behavior Checklist; these include somatic complaints (P = .0095), somatic problems (P = .041), internalizing problems (P = .034), externalizing problems (P = .0001), and withdrawn/depression (P = .025). CONCLUSION: This study presents evidence that HBT may be a beneficial treatment for individuals with 49,XXXXY.

A longitudinal perspective of hormone replacement therapies (HRTs) on neuromotor capabilities in males with 47,XXY (Klinefelter syndrome).

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to delineate the effects of variable hormone replacement therapies on neuromotor function in a large cohort of males with 47,XXY from birth to adulthood. METHODS: A total of 270 participants aged 16 days to 17 years 11 months prenatally diagnosed with 47,XXY were assessed by their pediatric endocrinologist and were administered hormone replacement therapies accordingly. Infants and school-aged children with 47,XXY were administered neuromotor assessments during routine neurodevelopmental evaluations. For statistical analysis, participants were segregated on the basis of treatment status. Two-tailed t tests, 1-way analysis of variance, and post hoc analysis determined significant group differences on each assessment. RESULTS: In infants, the early hormonal treatment (EHT) group performed significantly better than the untreated group on fine motor and motor composite domains. In school-aged children, we observed significantly improved scores on fine motor control, coordination, agility, and strength domains among males treated with EHT (or any combination thereof) compared with those who did not receive early treatment. CONCLUSION: The highest treated combination group was associated with the highest neuromotor function, although the EHT group also often performed better than the other groups. This suggests EHT may be essential in promoting long-term optimal neuromotor outcome in males with an additional X.

The effect of early hormonal treatment (EHT) on expressive and receptive language capabilities in boys with 47,XXY (Klinefelter syndrome) during infancy and early childhood.

PURPOSE: 47,XXY is associated with variable neurodevelopmental outcomes including deficits in expressive and receptive language development. Early hormonal treatment (EHT) has been associated with mitigating some deficiencies in boys with 47,XXY. This study investigates these language capabilities of 47,XXY boys in the first five years of life and the associated effects of EHT on these capabilities. METHODS: One hundred and seventy-five boys with 47,XXY between the ages of 0 and 5 years, 11 months completed neurodevelopmental assessments specific to age examining their expressive and receptive language capabilities. Subjects were grouped by treatment (EHT and No-T) and differences were analyzed. RESULTS: In the age groups of under 12 months, 24-35 months, 36-47 months, and 60-71 months, the EHT group scored significantly higher on expressive language assessments than the No-T group (p = 0.09, p = 0.0002, p = 0.009, and p = 0.02, respectively). In the age groups of under 12 months and 24-35 months, the EHT group scored significantly better on the auditory comprehension domain of the PLS-4/5 (p = 0.02 and p = 0.05, respectively) than the No-T group. CONCLUSION: Study data suggest EHT may be essential in optimizing receptive and expressive language development in 47,XXY boys during early childhood, which is critical in fostering reading skills and later academic success.

Neurocognitive development and capabilities in boys with 49,XXXXY syndrome.

49,XXXXY was previously associated with profound to severe intellectual deficits. However, prior research papers on the cognitive profiles of this population were confounded by small samples sizes, wide age spreads, and incomplete histories of testosterone replacement therapy. This study is the first comprehensive, international investigation of the neurocognitive aspects of 49,XXXXY, and the potential effects of biological treatment on this profile. Sixty-seven boys from infancy to 11 years of age were enrolled in this longitudinal study, with the majority of boys postnatally diagnosed though chromosomal analysis. These boys received a comprehensive neurocognitive evaluation tailored to specific language-based deficits and cognitive challenges. Results revealed higher neurocognitive capacities, both verbally and nonverbally, than previously reported in this disorder. Infant boys with 49,XXXXY who received early hormonal therapy (EHT) had significantly higher scores on the cognitive domain of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development than untreated infants (p = .013). In addition, treated school-aged participants had significantly better scaled scores than untreated boys in form completion (p = .042), a task that requires deductive reasoning, on nonverbal testing on the Leiter International Performance Scales. This study indicates greater cognitive capacities with a wide range of abilities in the child with 49,XXXXY, thus warranting further investigation to identify and understand the critical influences on the etiology and the variability of those capacities.

Speech and language development in children with 49,XXXXY syndrome.

49,XXXXY is the rarest X and Y chromosomal variation and is frequently characterized by expressive and receptive language dysfunction, low muscle tonus, and intellectual deficits. Due to the low incidence of this disorder, comprehensive studies analyzing the specific aspects of the speech and language phenotype in these boys have been uncommon. This is the first in-depth investigation of the speech and language profiles in a large cohort of boys with 49,XXXXY. Based on the clinical judgment of speech and language pathologists, there was an increased incidence (91.8%) of Childhood Apraxia of Speech (CAS), which has not been previously described in this disorder. In preschool boys, some significant differences were demonstrated between boys who received early hormonal treatment (n = 16) and untreated boys (n = 4) on the language scales (p = .047) on the Bayley Scales of Infants and Toddlers, as well as significant differences between treated (n = 13) and untreated boys (n = 8) on the Expressive One Word Picture Vocabulary Test (p = .008). No significant differences between treatment groups were found in school age children, however, treated groups demonstrated less discrepancies between expressive and receptive language. More research and larger samples are needed to determine the extent of the impact of testosterone treatment on boys with 49,XXXXY. This study identifies CAS as a potential explanation for the significant expressive language dysfunction and subsequent behavioral dysfunction. These findings may assist in facilitating more targeted treatment and improved outcomes for boys with 49,XXXXY.

49,XXXXY syndrome: A study of neurological function in this uncommon X and Y chromosomal disorder.

49,XXXXY is a rare chromosomal variation characterized by deficits in motor, language, and cognitive domains. This study reports on the neurological function and dysmorphic features in the largest cohort to date. Seventy-two boys with 49,XXXXY were evaluated on a variety of domains including a neurological examination and neuromotor assessments including the Beery Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, Sixth Edition, the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (BSID-III), and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition. Results supported previous literature by describing high occurrences of truncal and extremity hypotonia, which significantly impacts on motor milestones and ambulation in this population. The boys presented with dysmorphic features including epicanthal folds, frontal bossing, and synophrys. Visual perception skills were mildly impaired and cranial nerves were typically intact, however capabilities in motor coordination and fine motor precision were greatly delayed, supporting deficits in refined and controlled hand movements versus widespread visual deficits. Preschool boys treated with testosterone replacement had significantly increased scores when compared to the untreated group on the BSID-III Psychomotor Development Index, further supporting previous research indicating that testosterone replacement may have a positive impact on neurodevelopmental outcomes in males with additional X chromosomes. Boys with 49,XXXXY may benefit from hormonal treatment in conjunction with early intervention services to address their significant motor deficits.

Neurodevelopmental outcome of prenatally diagnosed boys with 47,XXY (Klinefelter syndrome) and the potential influence of early hormonal therapy.

This cross-sectional study examined the neurodevelopment of a large, prenatally diagnosed population of boys with 47,XXY; investigated the potentially positive effects of early hormonal therapy (EHT) on language, cognition, and motor in this population; and identified novel at risk biomarkers associated with 47,XXY. Two-hundred and seventy two evaluations were collected from 148 prenatally diagnosed boys with 47,XXY between 0 and 36 months and separated into one of three groups, depending on visit age: Y1 (0-12 months; n = 100), Y2 (13-24 months; n = 90), and Y3 (25-36 months; n = 82). Those who received EHT (administered by 12 months) were further separated (Y1, n = 37; Y2, n = 34; Y3, n = 30). Neurodevelopmental evaluations consisted of Preschool Language Scales, Early Language Milestone Scale, and Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development and evaluated the effect of EHT on auditory comprehension, expressive communication, receptive language, cognition, and motor. EHT was found to be associated with a positive effect within the first year of life in these domains, as well as in the second and third year of life. Additionally, three novel at-risk biomarkers were identified in this cohort: feeding difficulties in infancy, positional torticollis, and the need for orthotics. The positive effects of EHT observed in language, cognition, and motor at variable stages within the first 3 years of life provide additional evidence into the possible efficacy of early biological treatment for boys with 47,XXY to address the neurodevelopmental dysfunction.

The incidence of anxiety symptoms in boys with 47,XXY (Klinefelter syndrome) and the possible impact of timing of diagnosis and hormonal replacement therapy.

47,XXY (Klinefelter syndrome) is the most common X and Y chromosomal variation (1:660 males). The incidence of anxiety disorders and the impact of hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) is not well understood. Child Behavior Checklist and Screen for Childhood Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders were completed by parents of 80 boys with 47,XXY. Forty received HRT prior to 10 years of age while 40 did not. HRT (22.5%) received early hormonal treatment prior to 18 months. About 32.5% received hormone booster treatment between 5 and 10 years. The remaining 42.5% received both. There were fewer reported social (p = .015), thought (p = .012), and affective problems (p = .048) in treated boys when compared to untreated. Boys with both treatments demonstrated fewer symptoms on anxious/depressed scale (p = .001) compared to those with early treatment only. Within the treated group, prenatally diagnosed showed fewer indications of anxiety problems (p = .02) than their postnatal counterparts. This comparative, cross-sectional study expands previous findings on the possible positive effect of HRT in boys with 47,XXY. Anxiety disorders appear to be a penetrant aspect of the 47,XXY phenotype. Further investigation is warranted to explore the relationship between biological treatment and individual responses to HRT to develop more personalized and precise medicine.

Hormonal replacement therapy and its potential influence on working memory and competency/adaptive functioning in 47,XXY (Klinefelter syndrome).

This cross-sectional, retrospective analysis investigated the possible effect of hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) on working memory (WM) and competency/adaptive functioning (CAF) in boys with 47,XXY; the effect of timing of 47,XXY diagnosis on these variables; and the relationship between WM and CAF, if any. A total of 111 boys with 47,XXY, ranging from 6 to 16 years of age (M = 9 years 4 months; SD = 2 years 1 month), were evaluated using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and Child Behavior Checklist. Participants were grouped by HRT status and timing of diagnosis. Analysis of variance testing performed on the prenatally diagnosed boys revealed a statistically significant difference in WM for the HRT groups (F[3,84] = 7.467, p = .000174), where WM of the no-HRT group (M = 92.37, SD = 17.83) was lower than that of the early hormonal therapy group (M = 106.39, SD = 12.01; p = .0092). Additionally, there was a positive correlation between low WM capabilities and poor school performance (r = .5106, p = .0027) in the prenatally diagnosed, untreated boys. Our results highlight the potentially positive effects of HRT on WM and CAF in boys with 47,XXY. Further research is required to better determine the underlying relationship among the biological mechanisms of HRT, WM, and CAF outcomes, and timing of diagnosis in boys with 47,XXY.

Positive effects of early androgen therapy on the behavioral phenotype of boys with 47,XXY.

47, XXY occurs in up to 1 in 650 male births and is associated with androgen deficiency, neurodevelopmental delays, and atypical social-behaviors. Previously, we showed that young boys with 47, XXY who received early hormonal therapy (EHT) had significantly improved neurodevelopment. The objective of this follow-up study was to examine the effects of EHT on social behavior in boys with 47, XXY. The study consisted of boys prenatally diagnosed with 47, XXY who were referred for evaluations. Twenty-nine boys received three injections of 25 mg testosterone enanthate and 57 controls did not receive EHT. Behavioral functioning was assessed using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Social Responsiveness Scale, 2nd Ed., and the Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 6-18. The hypothesis that EHT may affect behavior was formulated prior to data collection. Questionnaire data was prospectively obtained and analyzed to test for significance between two groups. Significant differences were identified between group's scores over time in Social Communication (P=0.007), Social Cognition (P=0.006), and Total T-score (P=0.001) on the SRS-2; Initiation (P=0.05) on the BRIEF; and Externalizing Problems (P=0.024), Affective Problems (P=0.05), and Aggressive Behaviors (P=0.031) on the CBCL. This is the third study revealing positive effects of EHT on boys with XXY. There was a significant improvements associated with the 47, XXY genotype in boys who received EHT. Research is underway on the neurobiological mechanisms, and later developmental effects of EHT.

The Effect of Hormonal Therapy on the Behavioral Outcomes in 47,XXY (Klinefelter Syndrome) between 7 and 12 Years of Age.

47,XXY, also known as Klinefelter syndrome, is the most commonly occurring sex chromosomal aneuploidy (SCA). Hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) has been associated with improved neurodevelopmental capabilities in boys with 47,XXY, although studies investigating HRT's possible positive effect on behavioral outcomes are scarce. This study explores the association between behavioral outcomes and HRT in boys ages 7-12. Patients were divided into 4 groups based on HRT status: untreated, early hormonal treatment (EHT), hormonal booster therapy (HBT), and both EHT and HBT. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Kruskal-Wallis tests were conducted to determine group differences on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). The treated groups were found to have better scores in emotional control, initiative, organization of materials, behavioral rating index, metacognition index, and global executive composite than the untreated group on the BRIEF. On the CBCL, the treated groups presented better scores for somatic complaints, social problems, thought problems, attention problems, aggressive behavior, internalizing problems, total problems, affective problems, somatic problems, ADHD problems, oppositional defiant problems, and sluggish problems in comparison to the untreated group. These results offer evidence that HRT, specifically the combination of both EHT and HBT, may be successful in mitigating some undesirable behavioral outcomes. Further research is necessary to determine the efficacy of the combination of EHT and HBT regarding dosage, specific ages, and long-term benefits.