Participatory ergonomics: What works for whom and why? A realist review.

Participatory workplace interventions to improve workforce musculoskeletal health are infrequently analysed regarding why they work, for whom or under what circumstances. This review sought to identify intervention strategies which achieved genuine worker participation. In total, 3388 articles on participatory ergonomic (PE) interventions were screened; 23 were suitable to analyse within a realist framework identifying contexts, mechanisms of change, and outcomes. The interventions which succeeded in achieving worker participation were characterised by one or more of these contexts: workers' needs as a core starting point; a positive implementation climate; clear distribution of roles and responsibilities; allocation of sufficient resources; and managerial commitment to and involvement in occupational safety and health. Interventions that were organised and delivered in this way generated relevance, meaning, confidence, ownership and trust for the workers in an interrelated and multi-directional manner. With such information, PE interventions may be carried out more effectively and sustainably in the future.Practitioner summary: This review focuses on the question: which mechanisms support genuine worker participation, in what context and with which necessary resources, to reduce musculoskeletal disorders. Results emphasise the importance of starting with workers' needs, making the implementation climate egalitarian, clarifying the roles and responsibilities of all involved, and providing sufficient resources.Abbreviations: PE: participatory ergonomic(s); WMSD: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders; EU: European Union; MSD: Muskuloskeletal disorders; OSH: Occupational health and safety; C: context; M: mechanism; O: outcome; CMOCs: CMO configurations; NPT: Normalization process theory; OECD: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: EU-OSHA: European Occupational Safety and Health Agency.

Changes in Job Security and Mental Health: An Analysis of 14 Annual Waves of an Australian Working-Population Panel Survey.

We examined whether job security improvements were associated with improvements in mental health in a large, nationally representative panel study in Australia. We used both within-person fixed effects (FE) and random effects (RE) regression to analyze data from 14 annual waves covering the calendar period of 2002-2015 (19,169 persons; 106,942 observations). Mental Health Inventory-5 scores were modeled in relation to self-reported job security (categorical, quintiles), adjusting for age, year, education, and job change in the past year. Both FE and RE models showed stepwise improvements in Mental Health Inventory-5 scores with improving job security, with stronger exposure-outcome relationships in the RE models and for men compared with women. The RE coefficients for improvements in job security in men were 2.06 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.67, 2.46) for 1 quintile, steadily increasing for 2- (3.94 (95% CI: 3.54, 4.34)), 3- (5.82 (95% CI: 5.40, 6.24)), and 4-quintile (7.18 (95% CI: 6.71, 7.64)) improvements. The FE model for men produced slightly smaller coefficients, reaching a maximum of 5.55 (95% CI: 5.06, 6.05). This analysis, with improved causal inference over previous observational research, showed that improving job security is strongly associated with decreasing depression and anxiety symptoms. Policy and practice intervention to improve job security could benefit population mental health.

Surface-acting emotional labor predicts depressive symptoms among health care workers over a 2-year prospective study.

OBJECTIVE: Surface-acting emotional labor (SaEL) is the requirement to hide or suppress felt emotions to achieve acceptable job performance. It is a common feature of jobs featuring interactions with the public, such as customers or patients. Resulting emotional inauthenticity is associated with psychological strain, but there have been few prospective studies of mental health outcomes. METHODS: A self-administered questionnaire was distributed in 24 skilled nursing facilities at baseline and 23 facilities 2 years later. Permanent full-time and part-time employees in all jobs were eligible to participate. Respondents in these analyses provided survey information on the frequency of SaEL at baseline and depressive symptoms on both occasions. Those without depression at baseline were deemed at risk. Multivariable logistic regression modeling estimated adjusted odds ratios (aOR) for SaEL, other job features, and demographic characteristics. RESULTS: A total of 939 eligible participants had no depression at baseline; 15% developed depressive symptoms. About two-thirds were direct care providers, including 38% nursing and medical assistants. Adjusted for potential confounders, workers with intermediate and high SaEL had a higher risk (aORs around 2). Symptom onset was also predicted by high work-family conflict, younger age and low decision latitude at work. CONCLUSIONS: In this prospective study of long-term care workers, those who reported experiencing high SaEL at the time of the baseline survey were at higher risk of developing depressive symptoms 2 years later. Both exposure and outcome could have suffered some misclassification. Future studies should examine a broader range of strategies for coping with emotional labor demands.

Serum Vitamin D and Depressive Symptomatology among Boston-Area Puerto Ricans.

BACKGROUND: Low vitamin D status, assessed using serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentration, has been associated with depression, but research among minority populations, such as Puerto Ricans is limited. We examined the association between serum 25(OH)D and self-reported depressive symptomatology across 3 waves of follow-up in a cohort of Puerto Rican adults residing in Massachusetts. OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between serum 25(OH)D and self-reported depressive symptoms in the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study (BPRHS) cohort. METHODS: Participants of the BPRHS were evaluated for depressive symptoms using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Serum 25(OH)D was measured at baseline (n = 1434), year 2 (n = 1218), and year 5 (n = 914). We categorized serum 25(OH)D concentration as sufficient (≥20 ng/mL), insufficient (12 to <20 ng/mL), and deficient (<12 ng/mL). Multivariable linear regression was used for cross-sectional analyses at baseline, and repeated measures mixed effects modeling was used over 3 waves of follow-up for longitudinal analyses. We conducted sensitivity analyses in vitamin D supplement nonusers and participants with complete data on baseline serum 25(OH)D and CES-D at all 3 visits. RESULTS: Serum 25(OH)D concentration was not associated with CES-D score in cross-sectional analysis [ß = -0.85; 95% CI: -2.80, 1.10 for deficient compared with sufficient 25(OH)D; P-trend = 0.59] or in longitudinal analyses over 5 y [ß = -0.41; 95% CI: -1.95, 1.13 for deficient compared with sufficient 25(OH)D; P-trend = 0.93]. Results were similar in sensitivity analyses restricted to vitamin D supplement nonusers (n = 1371) and in analyses conducted in participants with complete measures of baseline serum 25(OH)D and CES-D score at all 3 visits (n = 887) [ß = -0.12; 95% CI: -1.98, 1.74 for deficient compared with sufficient 25(OH)D; P-trend = 0.93]. CONCLUSIONS: We did not observe a significant association between serum 25(OH)D and depressive symptomatology in the BPRHS cohort.

Work Environment Factors and Prevention of Opioid-Related Deaths.

Opioid use disorder (OUD) and opioid overdose deaths (OODs) are prevalent among US workers, but work-related factors have not received adequate attention as either risk factors or opportunities for OOD prevention. Higher prevalence of OOD in those with heavy physical jobs, more precarious work, and limited health care benefits suggest work environment and organizational factors may predispose workers to the development of OUD.Organizational policies that reduce ergonomic risk factors, respond effectively to employee health and safety concerns, provide access to nonpharmacologic pain management, and encourage early substance use treatment are important opportunities to improve outcomes. Organizational barriers can limit disclosure of pain and help-seeking behavior, and opioid education is not effectively integrated with workplace safety training and health promotion programs.Policy development at the employer, government, and association levels could improve the workplace response to workers with OUD and reduce occupational risks that may be contributing factors.

Safety and Health through Integrated, Facilitated Teams (SHIFT): stepped-wedge protocol for prospective, mixed-methods evaluation of the Healthy Workplace Participatory Program.

BACKGROUND: Healthcare facilities are notorious for occupational health and safety problems. Multi-level interventions are needed to address interacting exposures and their overlapping origins in work organization features. Worker participation in problem identification and resolution is essential. This study evaluates the CPH-NEW Healthy Workplace Participatory Program (HWPP), a Total Worker Health® protocol to develop effective employee teams for worker safety, health, and wellbeing. METHODS: Six public sector, unionized healthcare facilities are enrolled, in three pairs, matched by agency. The unit of intervention is a workplace health and safety committee, adapted here to a joint labor-management "Design Team" (DT). The DT conducts root cause analyses, prioritizes problems, identifies feasible interventions in light of the constraints and needs of the specific setting, makes business-case presentations to facility leadership, and assists in evaluation. Following a stepped-wedge (cross-over) design, one site in each pair is randomly assigned to "immediate intervention" status, receiving the full coached intervention at baseline; in the "lagged intervention" site, coaching begins about half-way through the study. Program effectiveness and cost-effectiveness outcomes are assessed at both organizational (e.g., workers' compensation claim and absenteeism rates, perceived management support of safety) and individual levels (e.g., self-rated health, sleep quality, leisure-time exercise). Targeted pre-post analyses will also examine specific outcomes appropriate to the topics selected for intervention. Process evaluation outcomes include fidelity of the HWPP intervention, extent of individual DT member activity, expansion of committee scope to include employee well-being, program obstacles and opportunities in each setting, and sustainability (within the available time frame). DISCUSSION: This study aims for a quantitative evaluation of the HWPP over a time period long enough to accomplish multiple intervention cycles in each facility. The design seeks to achieve comparable study engagement and data quality between groups. We will also assess whether the HWPP might be further improved to meet the needs of U.S. public sector healthcare institutions. Potential challenges include difficulty in pooling data across study sites if Design Teams select different intervention topics, and follow-up periods too short for change to be observed. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04251429 (retrospectively registered January 29, 2020), protocol version 1.

Occupational biomechanical risk factors for radial nerve entrapment in a 13-year prospective study among male construction workers.

OBJECTIVES: The aim was to assess the association between occupational biomechanical exposure and the occurrence of radial nerve entrapment (RNE) in construction workers over a 13-year follow-up period. METHODS: A cohort of 229 707 male construction workers who participated in a national occupational health surveillance programme (1971-1993) was examined prospectively (2001-2013) for RNE. Height, weight, age, smoking status and job title (construction trade) were obtained on health examination. RNE case status was defined by surgical release of RNE, with data from the Swedish national registry for out-patient surgery records. A job exposure matrix was developed, and biomechanical exposure estimates were assigned according to job title. Highly correlated exposures were summed into biomechanical exposure scores. Negative binomial models were used to estimate the relative risks (RR) (incidence rate ratios) of RNE surgical release for the biomechanical factors and exposure sum scores. Predicted incidence was assessed for each exposure score modelled as a continuous variable to assess exposure-response relationships. RESULTS: The total incidence rate of surgically treated RNE over the 13-year observation period was 3.53 cases per 100 000 person-years. There were 92 cases with occupational information. Increased risk for RNE was seen in workers with elevated hand-grip forces (RR=1.79, 95% CI 0.97 to 3.28) and exposure to hand-arm vibration (RR=1.47, 95% CI 1.08 to 2.00). CONCLUSIONS: Occupational exposure to forceful handgrip work and vibration increased the risk for surgical treatment of RNE.

"Working on Wellness:" protocol for a worksite health promotion capacity-building program for employers.

BACKGROUND: In the United States, worksite wellness programs are more often offered by larger employers. The Massachusetts Working on Wellness (WoW) program is an innovative, statewide capacity-building model designed to increase the number of smaller employers (200 or fewer workers) adopting health promotion initiatives. This article describes the WoW program design and approaches to recruitment, implementation, and evaluation. METHODS/DESIGN: WoW provides employer training, technical assistance and seed funding, utilizing a Wellness Program Development framework based on recognized good practices. For-profit employers with 200 employees or fewer are eligible for and encouraged to apply for a Massachusetts Small Business Wellness Tax Credit. During the phase described in this paper, employer organizations applied to the program and committed to designating a champion responsible for program implementation. Interventions were to include policy and environmental supports, as well as those targeting individual behavior change through raising awareness and education. Supports provided to employers included seed grants for qualifying activities (up to $10,000 with matching required), community linkages, data collection and organization-specific feedback tools, an on-line curriculum supplemented with technical assistance, and an expert webinar series. Data collection at multiple time points, from the initial application through program completion, provides information for evaluation of recruitment, planned and completed activities. DISCUSSION: This model is grounded in literature on good practices as well as in local knowledge about Massachusetts employers. It does not directly address the influence of working conditions, which can affect both worker participation and health behaviors. Implementation may be less successful with some organizations, such as those with many workers who are part-time or geographically distributed rather than in a centralized physical location. Program evaluation will assess the extent to which WoW achieves its goals. The data are expected to increase understanding of the needs of smaller employers and industries not traditionally implementing employee wellness programs.

Impact of a Safe Resident Handling Program in Nursing Homes on Return-to-Work and Re-injury Outcomes Following Work Injury.

Purpose This study examined the impact of a Safe Resident Handling Program (SRHP) on length of disability and re-injury, following work-related injuries of nursing home workers. Resident handling-related injuries and back injuries were of particular interest. Methods A large national nursing home corporation introduced a SRHP followed by three years of training for 136 centers. Lost-time workers' compensation claims (3 years pre-SRHP and 6 years post-SRHP) were evaluated. For each claim, length of first episode of disability and recurrence of disabling injury were evaluated over time. Differences were assessed using Chi square analyses and a generalized linear model, and "avoided" costs were projected. Results The SRHP had no impact on length of disability, but did appear to significantly reduce the rate of recurrence among resident handling-related injuries. As indemnity and medical costs were three times higher for claimants with recurrent disabling injuries, the SRHP resulted in significant "avoided" costs due to "avoided" recurrence. Conclusions In addition to reducing overall injury rates, SRHPs appear to improve long-term return-to-work success by reducing the rate of recurrent disabling injuries resulting in work disability. In this study, the impact was sustained over years, even after a formal training and implementation program ended. Since back pain is inherently a recurrent condition, results suggest that SRHPs help workers remain at work and return-to-work.

Knee pain in nursing home workers after implementation of a safe resident handling program.

PURPOSE: Approximately 25-30% of nursing personnel experience knee pain (KP). We sought to identify physical and psychosocial work exposures, and personal factors related to prevalent, incident, and persistent KP 5-8 years after safe resident handing program (SRHP) implementation in nursing homes. METHODS: Health and exposure information was obtained from worker surveys 5-6 years ("F5") and 7-8 years ("F6") post-SRHP implementation. Prevalent KP correlates were examined at F5; persistent and incident KP predictors were analyzed at F6, utilizing robust Poisson multivariable regression. RESULTS: F5 KP prevalence (19.7%) was associated with combined physical exposures, and with either high job strain or low social support, in separate models. Two-year persistent KP was similarly associated with these psychosocial exposures. Being overweight was associated with KP in all analyses. CONCLUSIONS: The SRHP program did not eliminate knee physical loading, which should be reduced to prevent nursing home worker KP. Workplace psychosocial exposures (high job strain, low social support) also appeared germane.

Ergonomic evaluation of slide boards used by home care aides to assist client transfers.

Home care aides risk musculoskeletal injury because they lift and move clients; the body weight of most adults exceeds the NIOSH recommended limit for lifting. Methods to reduce manual patient lifting in institutional settings are often technically or economically infeasible in home care. Our goal was to identify suitable, safe, low-technology transfer devices for home care use. Sixteen experienced home care aides performed client transfers from wheelchair to bed (upward) and bed to wheelchair (downward) in a simulated home care environment (laboratory), using four different slide boards and by hand without a device. Aides' hand forces were measured during client transfers; aides also evaluated usability of each board. Hand forces exerted while using slide boards were mostly lower than in manual transfer, and forces were lower in downward versus upward transfers. Aides judged a board with a sliding mechanism easier to use than boards without a sliding mechanism. Practitioner Summary: This paper provides quantitative biomechanical measurements showing that slide boards reduced the hand forces needed by home care aides to transfer clients from bed to wheel chair and vice versa, compared to manual lifting. Using a semi-quantitative usability survey, aides identified boards with a sliding mechanism easiest to use.

Predictors of low back pain in nursing home workers after implementation of a safe resident handling programme.

OBJECTIVES: Healthcare workers have high rates of low back pain (LBP) related to handling patients. A large chain of nursing homes experienced reduced biomechanical load, compensation claims and costs following implementation of a safe resident handling programme (SRHP). The aim of this study was to examine whether LBP similarly declined and whether it was associated with relevant self-reported occupational exposures or personal health factors. METHODS: Worker surveys were conducted on multiple occasions beginning with the week of first SRHP introduction (baseline). In each survey, the outcome was LBP during the prior 3 months with at least mild severity during the past week. Robust Poisson multivariable regression models were constructed to examine correlates of LBP cross-sectionally at 2 years (F3) and longitudinally at 5-6 years (F5) post-SRHP implementation among workers also in at least one prior survey. RESULTS: LBP prevalence declined minimally between baseline and F3. The prevalence was 37% at F3 and cumulative incidence to F5 was 22%. LBP prevalence at F3 was positively associated with combined physical exposures, psychological job demands and prior back injury, while frequent lift device usage and 'intense' aerobic exercise frequency were protective. At F5, the multivariable model included frequent lift usage at F3 (relative risk (RR) 0.39 (0.18 to 0.84)) and F5 work-family imbalance (RR=1.82 (1.12 to 2.98)). CONCLUSIONS: In this observational study, resident lifting device usage predicted reduced LBP in nursing home workers. Other physical and psychosocial demands of nursing home work also contributed, while frequent intense aerobic exercise appeared to reduce LBP risk.

Associations between safety climate and safety management practices in the construction industry.

BACKGROUND: Safety climate, a group-level measure of workers' perceptions regarding management's safety priorities, has been suggested as a key predictor of safety outcomes. However, its relationship with actual injury rates is inconsistent. We posit that safety climate may instead be a parallel outcome of workplace safety practices, rather than a determinant of workers' safety behaviors or outcomes. METHODS: Using a sample of 25 commercial construction companies in Colombia, selected by injury rate stratum (high, medium, low), we examined the relationship between workers' safety climate perceptions and safety management practices (SMPs) reported by safety officers. RESULTS: Workers' perceptions of safety climate were independent of their own company's implementation of SMPs, as measured here, and its injury rates. However, injury rates were negatively related to the implementation of SMPs. CONCLUSIONS: Safety management practices may be more important than workers' perceptions of safety climate as direct predictors of injury rates.

Occupational health of home care aides: results of the safe home care survey.

OBJECTIVES: In countries with ageing populations, home care (HC) aides are among the fastest growing jobs. There are few quantitative studies of HC occupational safety and health (OSH) conditions. The objectives of this study were to: (1) assess quantitatively the OSH hazards and benefits for a wide range of HC working conditions, and (2) compare OSH experiences of HC aides who are employed via different medical and social services systems in Massachusetts, USA. METHODS: HC aides were recruited for a survey via agencies that employ aides and schedule their visits with clients, and through a labour union of aides employed directly by clients or their families. The questionnaire included detailed questions about the most recent HC visits, as well as about individual aides' OSH experiences. RESULTS: The study population included 1249 HC aides (634 agency-employed, 615 client-employed) contributing information on 3484 HC visits. Hazards occurring most frequently related to musculoskeletal strain, exposure to potentially infectious agents and cleaning chemicals for infection prevention and experience of violence. Client-hired and agency-hired aides had similar OSH experiences with a few exceptions, including use of sharps and experience of verbal violence. CONCLUSIONS: The OSH experience of HC aides is similar to that of aides in institutional healthcare settings. Despite OSH challenges, HC aides enjoy caring for others and the benefits of HC work should be enhanced. Quantification of HC hazards and benefits is useful to prioritise resources for the development of preventive interventions and to provide an evidence base for policy-setting.

Process evaluation of two participatory approaches: Implementing total worker health® interventions in a correctional workforce.

BACKGROUND: Correctional Officers (COs) have among the highest injury rates and poorest health of all the public safety occupations. The HITEC-2 (Health Improvement Through Employee Control-2) study uses Participatory Action Research (PAR) to design and implement interventions to improve health and safety of COs. METHOD: HITEC-2 compared two different types of participatory program, a CO-only "Design Team" (DT) and "Kaizen Event Teams" (KET) of COs and supervisors, to determine differences in implementation process and outcomes. The Program Evaluation Rating Sheet (PERS) was developed to document and evaluate program implementation. RESULTS: Both programs yielded successful and unsuccessful interventions, dependent upon team-, facility-, organizational, state-, facilitator-, and intervention-level factors. CONCLUSIONS: PAR in corrections, and possibly other sectors, depends upon factors including participation, leadership, continuity and timing, resilience, and financial circumstances. The new PERS instrument may be useful in other sectors to assist in assessing intervention success. Am. J. Ind. Med. 59:897-918, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Obesity/Overweight and the Role of Working Conditions: A Qualitative, Participatory Investigation.

The rising U.S. prevalence of obesity has generated significant concern and demonstrates striking socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities. Most interventions target individual behaviors, sometimes in combination with improving the physical environment in the community but rarely involving modifications of the work environment. With 3.6 million workers earning at or below the federal minimum wage, it is imperative to understand the impact of working conditions on health and weight for lower income workers. To investigate this question, a university-community partnership created a participatory research team and conducted eight focus groups, in English and Spanish, with people holding low-wage jobs in various industries. Analysis of transcripts identified four themes: physically demanding work (illnesses, injuries, leisure-time physical activity), psychosocial work stressors (high demands, low control, low social support, poor treatment), food environment at work (available food choices, kitchen equipment), and time pressure (scheduling, having multiple jobs and responsibilities). Physical and psychosocial features of work were identified as important antecedents for overweight. In particular, nontraditional work shifts and inflexible schedules limited participants' ability to adhere to public health recommendations for diet and physical activity. Workplace programs to address obesity in low-wage workers must include the effect of working conditions as a fundamental starting point.

Workplace Participatory Occupational Health/Health Promotion Program: Facilitators and Barriers Observed in Three Nursing Homes.

Nursing home employees experience high physical and psychosocial workloads, resulting in poor health outcomes. An occupational health/health promotion program, designed to facilitate employee participation, was initiated in three nursing homes. The aim of the current study was to evaluate facilitators and barriers of the program after 3-year implementation. Focus groups with employees and in-depth interviews with top and middle managers were conducted. The Social Ecological Model was used to organize the evaluation. Facilitators and barriers were reported from both managers' and employees' perspectives, and were categorized as intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, and corporate level. Management support, financial resources, and release time for participation were identified as the three most important factors. Supports from multiple levels including both human and environment, and managers and employees, are important for a successful participatory occupational health/health promotion program. [Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 42(6), 34-42.].

Contributing influences of work environment on sleep quantity and quality of nursing assistants in long-term care facilities: A cross-sectional study.

The effect of shift work on nurses' sleep is well-studied, but there are other challenging aspects of health care work that might also affect the sleep of direct caregivers. This study examined the influence of the long-term care work environment on sleep quantity and quality of nursing assistants. A cross-sectional survey collected data from 650 nursing assistants in 15 long-term care facilities; 46% reported short sleep duration and 23% reported poor sleep quality. A simple additive index of the number of beneficial work features (up to 7) was constructed for analysis with Poisson regression. With each unit increase of beneficial work features, nursing assistants were 7% less likely to report short sleep duration and 17% less likely to report poor sleep quality. These results suggest that effective workplace interventions should address a variety of work stressors, not only work schedule arrangements, in order to improve nursing assistants' sleep health.

Working Conditions and Mental Health of Nursing Staff in Nursing Homes.

Nursing staff in nursing homes suffer from poor mental health, probably associated with stressful working conditions. Working conditions may distribute differently among nursing assistants, licensed practical nurses, and registered nurses due to their different levels in the organizational hierarchy. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the association between working conditions and mental health among different nursing groups, and examine the potential moderating effect of job group on this association. Self-administered questionnaires were collected with 1,129 nursing staff in 15 for-profit non-unionized nursing homes. Working conditions included both physical and psychosocial domains. Multivariate linear regression modeling found that mental health was associated with different working conditions in different nursing groups: physical safety (ß = 2.37, p < 0.05) and work-family conflict (ß = -2.44, p < 0.01) in NAs; work-family conflict (ß = -4.17, p < 0.01) in LPNs; and physical demands (ß = 10.54, p < 0.05) in RNs. Job group did not moderate the association between working conditions and mental health. Future workplace interventions to improve mental health should reach to nursing staff at different levels and consider tailored working condition interventions in different nursing groups.

Effect of an office ergonomic randomised controlled trial among workers with neck and upper extremity pain.

BACKGROUND: Office computer workers are at increased risk for neck/upper extremity (UE) musculoskeletal pain. METHODS: A seven-month office ergonomic intervention study evaluated the effect of two engineering controls plus training on neck/UE pain and mechanical exposures in 113 computer workers, including a 3-month follow-up period. Participants were randomised into an intervention group, who received a keyboard/mouse tray (KBT), touch pad (TP) for the non-dominant hand and keyboard shortcuts, and a control group who received keyboard shortcuts. Participants continued to have available a mouse at the dominant hand. Outcomes were pain severity, computer rapid upper limb assessment (RULA), and hand activity level. Prevalence ratios (PRs) evaluated intervention effects using dichotomised pain and exposure scores. RESULTS: In the intervention group, the dominnt proximal UE pain PR=0.9, 95% CI 0.7 to 1.2 and the dominant distal UE PR=0.8, 95% CI 0.5 to 1.3, postintervention. The non-dominant proximal UE pain PR=1.0, 95% CI 0.8 to 1.4, while the non-dominant distal UE PR=1.2, 95% CI 0.6 to 2.2, postintervention. Decreases in non-neutral postures were found in two RULA elements (non-dominant UE PR=0.9, 95% CI 0.8 to 0.9 and full non-dominant RULA PR=0.8, 95% CI 0.8 to 0.9) of the intervention group. Hand activity increased on the non-dominant side (PR=1.4, 95% CI 1.2 to 1.6) in this group. CONCLUSIONS: While the intervention reduced non-neutral postures in the non-dominant UE, it increased hand activity in the distal region of this extremity. To achieve lower hand activity, a KBT and TP used in the non-dominant hand may not be the best devices to use.