HIV-1 induces telomerase activity in monocyte-derived macrophages, possibly safeguarding one of its reservoirs.

Monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) are widely distributed in all tissues and organs, including the central nervous system, where they represent the main part of HIV-infected cells. In contrast to activated CD4(+) T lymphocytes, MDM are resistant to cytopathic effects and survive HIV infection for a long period of time. The molecular mechanisms of how HIV is able to persist in macrophages are not fully elucidated yet. In this context, we have studied the effect of in vitro HIV-1 infection on telomerase activity (TA), telomere length, and DNA damage. Infection resulted in a significant induction of TA. This increase was directly proportional to the efficacy of HIV infection and was found in both nuclear and cytoplasmic extracts, while neither UV light-inactivated HIV nor exogenous addition of the viral protein Tat or gp120 affected TA. Furthermore, TA was not modified during monocyte-macrophage differentiation, MDM activation, or infection with vaccinia virus. HIV infection did not affect telomere length. However, HIV-infected MDM showed less DNA damage after oxidative stress than noninfected MDM, and this resistance was also increased by overexpressing telomerase alone. Taken together, our results suggest that HIV induces TA in MDM and that this induction might contribute to cellular protection against oxidative stress, which could be considered a viral strategy to make macrophages better suited as longer-lived, more resistant viral reservoirs. In the light of the clinical development of telomerase inhibitors as anticancer therapeutics, inhibition of TA in HIV-infected macrophages might also represent a novel therapeutic target against viral reservoirs.

Proline is not uniquely capable of providing the pivot point for domain swapping in 2G12, a broadly neutralizing antibody against HIV-1.

The human monoclonal antibody 2G12 is a member of a small group of broadly neutralizing antibodies against human immunodeficiency virus type 1. 2G12 adopts a unique variable heavy domain-exchanged dimeric configuration that results in an extensive multivalent binding surface and the ability to bind with high affinity to densely clustered high mannose oligosaccharides on the "silent" face of the gp120 envelope glycoprotein. Here, we further define the amino acids responsible for this extraordinary domain-swapping event in 2G12.

In planta protein sialylation through overexpression of the respective mammalian pathway.

Many therapeutic proteins are glycosylated and require terminal sialylation to attain full biological activity. Current manufacturing methods based on mammalian cell culture allow only limited control of this important posttranslational modification, which may lead to the generation of products with low efficacy. Here we report in vivo protein sialylation in plants, which have been shown to be well suited for the efficient generation of complex mammalian glycoproteins. This was achieved by the introduction of an entire mammalian biosynthetic pathway in Nicotiana benthamiana, comprising the coordinated expression of the genes for (i) biosynthesis, (ii) activation, (iii) transport, and (iv) transfer of Neu5Ac to terminal galactose. We show the transient overexpression and functional integrity of six mammalian proteins that act at various stages of the biosynthetic pathway and demonstrate their correct subcellular localization. Co-expression of these genes with a therapeutic glycoprotein, a human monoclonal antibody, resulted in quantitative sialylation of the Fc domain. Sialylation was at great uniformity when glycosylation mutants that lack plant-specific N-glycan residues were used as expression hosts. Finally, we demonstrate efficient neutralization activity of the sialylated monoclonal antibody, indicating full functional integrity of the reporter protein. We report for the first time the incorporation of the entire biosynthetic pathway for protein sialylation in a multicellular organism naturally lacking sialylated glycoconjugates. Besides the biotechnological impact of the achievement, this work may serve as a general model for the manipulation of complex traits into plants.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells express TRAIL and induce CD4+ T-cell apoptosis in HIV-1 viremic patients.

Artificial Toll-like receptor 7/8 (TLR7/8) ligands can endow plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) with tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-dependent lytic properties. Keeping in mind that ssRNA serves as natural TLR7/8 ligand, we searched for TRAIL-expressing cells in persons infected with HIV and identified TRAIL+ pDCs in HIV-1 viremic persons, but not in nonviremic and healthy persons. TRAIL expression on pDCs was directly correlated with individual viral loads. Conversely, HIV-1 viremia was found to be associated with the up-regulation of the apoptosis-transmitting receptor TRAIL R1 on activated CD4+ T cells. As a consequence, the latter became susceptible to TRAIL-dependent pDC-mediated killing. In contrast, initiation of antiretroviral therapy led to the up-regulation of apoptosis-inhibiting TRAIL R4 on CD4+ T cells, which subsequently became resistant against pDC-mediated cellular injury. Definition of pDCs as killers of CD4+ T cells implies a new mechanism of disease progression in HIV infection.

Improved virus neutralization by plant-produced anti-HIV antibodies with a homogeneous beta1,4-galactosylated N-glycan profile.

It is well established that proper N-glycosylation significantly influences the efficacy of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). However, the specific immunological relevance of individual mAb-associated N-glycan structures is currently largely unknown, because of the heterogeneous N-glycan profiles of mAbs when produced in mammalian cells. Here we report on the generation of a plant-based expression platform allowing the efficient production of mAbs with a homogeneous beta1,4-galactosylated N-glycosylation structure, the major N-glycan species present on serum IgG. This was achieved by the expression of a highly active modified version of the human beta1,4-galactosyltransferase in glycoengineered plants lacking plant-specific glycosylation. Moreover, we demonstrate that two anti-human immunodeficiency virus mAbs with fully beta1,4-galactosylated N-glycans display improved virus neutralization potency when compared with other glycoforms produced in plants and Chinese hamster ovary cells. These findings indicate that mAbs containing such homogeneous N-glycan structures should display improved in vivo activities. Our system, using expression of mAbs in tobacco plants engineered for post-translational protein processing, provides a new means of overcoming the two hurdles that limit the therapeutic use of anti-human immunodeficiency virus mAbs in global health initiatives, low biological potency and high production costs.

Influence of elastin-like peptide fusions on the quantity and quality of a tobacco-derived human immunodeficiency virus-neutralizing antibody.

The use of vaginal microbicides containing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) is a promising strategy to prevent HIV-1 infection. Although antibodies are predominantly manufactured using mammalian cells, elastin-like peptide (ELP) fusion technology improves the stability of recombinant, plant-produced proteins and facilitates their purification, making plants an alternative platform for antibody production. We generated transgenic tobacco plants accumulating four different formats of the anti-HIV-1 antibody 2G12 in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), i.e. with ELP on either the light or heavy chain, on both, or on neither. Detailed analysis of affinity-purified antibodies by surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy showed that the kinetic binding parameters of all formats were identical to 2G12 lacking ELP produced in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. Importantly, protein purification from seeds by inverse transition cycling (ITC) did not affect the binding kinetics. Analysis of heavy chain N-glycans from leaf-derived antibodies showed that retrieval to the ER was efficient for all formats. In seeds, however, N-glycans on the naked antibody were extensively trimmed compared with those on the ELP fusion formats, and were localized to a different subcellular compartment. The in vitro HIV-neutralization properties of the tobacco-derived 2G12 were equivalent to or better than those of the CHO counterpart.

Structural analysis and in vivo administration of an anti-idiotypic antibody against mAb 2F5.

Anti-idiotypic antibody (Ab2) 3H6 is directed against the human monoclonal antibody 2F5, which is one of a few neutralising antibodies against HIV-1. Since the binding epitope of 2F5 is cryptic and no neutralising immune response could be elicited by several potential vaccines comprising this region, Ab2/3H6 represents a potent vaccine candidate for active immunisation. Here we describe the molecular features of Ab2/3H6 after changing the antigen binding specificity by single point mutations in the complementarity-determining region 3 of the Ab2/3H6 heavy chain. The resulting Ab2/3H6 mutants were compared in several experimental settings to the wild type Ab2/3H6 Fab fragment. Moreover, we report about an immunisation study with Ab2/3H6 Fab variants, which elicited a specific 2F5-like humoral immune response in BALB/c mice.

Recombinant antibody 2G12 produced in maize endosperm efficiently neutralizes HIV-1 and contains predominantly single-GlcNAc N-glycans.

Antibody 2G12 is one of a small number of human immunoglobulin G (IgG) monoclonal antibodies exhibiting potent and broad human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1)-neutralizing activity in vitro, and the ability to prevent HIV-1 infection in animal models. It could be used to treat or prevent HIV-1 infection in humans, although to be effective it would need to be produced on a very large scale. We have therefore expressed this antibody in maize, which could facilitate inexpensive, large-scale production. The antibody was expressed in the endosperm, together with the fluorescent marker protein Discosoma red fluorescent protein (DsRed), which helps to identify antibody-expressing lines and trace transgenic offspring when bred into elite maize germplasm. To achieve accumulation in storage organelles derived from the endomembrane system, a KDEL signal was added to both antibody chains. Immunofluorescence and electron microscopy confirmed the accumulation of the antibody in zein bodies that bud from the endoplasmic reticulum. In agreement with this localization, N-glycans attached to the heavy chain were mostly devoid of Golgi-specific modifications, such as fucose and xylose. Surprisingly, most of the glycans were trimmed extensively, indicating that a significant endoglycanase activity was present in maize endosperm. The specific antigen-binding function of the purified antibody was verified by surface plasmon resonance analysis, and in vitro cell assays demonstrated that the HIV-neutralizing properties of the maize-produced antibody were equivalent to or better than those of its Chinese hamster ovary cell-derived counterpart.

Generation of glyco-engineered Nicotiana benthamiana for the production of monoclonal antibodies with a homogeneous human-like N-glycan structure.

A common argument against using plants as a production system for therapeutic proteins is their inability to perform authentic human N-glycosylation (i.e. the presence of beta1,2-xylosylation and core alpha1,3-fucosylation). In this study, RNA interference (RNAi) technology was used to obtain a targeted down-regulation of the endogenous beta1,2-xylosyltransferase (XylT) and alpha1,3-fucosyltransferase (FucT) genes in Nicotiana benthamiana, a tobacco-related plant species widely used for recombinant protein expression. Three glyco-engineered lines with significantly reduced xylosylated and/or core alpha1,3-fucosylated glycan structures were generated. The human anti HIV monoclonal antibody 2G12 was transiently expressed in these glycosylation mutants as well as in wild-type plants. Four glycoforms of 2G12 differing in the presence/absence of xylose and core alpha1,3-fucose residues in their N-glycans were produced. Notably, 2G12 produced in XylT/FucT-RNAi plants was found to contain an almost homogeneous N-glycan species without detectable xylose and alpha1,3-fucose residues. Plant-derived glycoforms were indistinguishable from Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)-derived 2G12 with respect to electrophoretic properties, and exhibited functional properties (i.e. antigen binding and HIV neutralization activity) at least equivalent to those of the CHO counterpart. The generated RNAi lines were stable, viable and did not show any obvious phenotype, thus providing a robust tool for the production of therapeutically relevant glycoproteins in plants with a humanized N-glycan structure.

Expression, purification, and in vivo administration of a promising anti-idiotypic HIV-1 vaccine.

To date only a few neutralizing antibodies against HIV-1 exist. Since these neutralizing antibodies are only rarely found in sera of HIV-1 infected individuals an active vaccine is required. We recently developed murine anti-idiotypic antibody Ab2/3H6 against monoclonal antibody (mAb) 2F5, which is one of the most prominent neutralizing antibodies. Anti-idiotypic antibody Ab2/3H6 has been partially humanized and expressed as whole immunoglobulin G in Chinese hamster ovary cells in order to minimize the human anti-mouse antibody response. Here we describe the expression, purification, and immunohistochemical characterization of the chimeric Ab2/3H6 Fab fragment, which was finally used beside the whole IgG1 as an antigen for immunization of guinea pigs. The crude sera were screened for specific antibodies against the epitope of mAb 2F5 ELDKWA as well as for reactivity against HIV-1 gp41.

Partial humanization and characterization of an anti-idiotypic antibody against monoclonal antibody 2F5, a potential HIV vaccine?

We recently developed a murine anti-idiotypic antibody (Ab2/3H6) versus the human monoclonal antibody 2F5, one of a few antibodies yet known to neutralize a broad range of HIV-1 primary isolates. Ab2/3H6 was not only able to bind to the paratope of mAb 2F5 but also significantly inhibited the binding of 2F5 to its synthetic epitope ELDKWA on gp41. In the present work we describe the partial humanization, expression, and characterization of Ab2/3H6 variants followed by several corresponding interaction studies with 2F5. The results of these studies support the high specificity of the recombinantly expressed Ab2s to the idiotype. Apparent affinities were designated by end point measurement and were similar compared to the murine Ab2/3H6. Moreover, the inhibition potency of chimeric Ab2/3H6 analyzed by in vitro studies could be shown to be the same as that detected for the hybridoma-derived murine Ab2/3H6.

HIV-1 mutants escaping neutralization by the human antibodies 2F5, 2G12, and 4E10: in vitro experiments versus clinical studies.

OBJECTIVE: The human monoclonal antibodies (mAb) 2F5, 2G12, and 4E10 are three of the most broadly neutralizing antibodies against HIV-1. Although they have been shown to prevent de novo infection in vivo, their potential for treatment of chronic infection is less clear. One major obstacle may be the emergence of resistant viruses during mAb treatment. DESIGN: To assess whether escape mutants can be generated in vitro which are resistant to all three mAbs, two neutralization-sensitive T-cell line-adapted viruses and two primary isolates were passaged in the presence of increasing concentrations of 2F5, 2G12, 4E10, and a 1: 1: 1 mixture. To get insight into viral escape in vivo, viruses were isolated from eight patients treated with repeated infusions of 2F5/2G12/4E10. RESULTS: In vitro, viruses resistant to a single mAb emerged after 3-22 weeks. Generation of viruses resistant to the triple-combination was a slower process characterized by recurrent loss of virus replication. Some generated triple-resistant viruses seemed to be impaired in their replicative fitness. Neutralization resistance to 2F5 and partly 4E10 could be attributed to amino acid mutations in the mAb epitopes, but not for 2G12. In vivo, none of the patients developed detectable viruses that escaped neutralization by all three mAbs within the 77-day observation period. Virus escape occurred only to 2G12 in three patients. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, the findings of the in vivo study and the difficulty in generating multi-resistance in vitro together with the fact that some generated viruses seemed to have impaired replication fitness indicate that 2F5, 2G12, and 4E10 may be useful for therapy in HIV-1 infection.

A human antibody to the CD4 binding site of gp120 capable of highly potent but sporadic cross clade neutralization of primary HIV-1.

Primary isolates of HIV-1 resist neutralization by most antibodies to the CD4 binding site (CD4bs) on gp120 due to occlusion of this site on the trimeric spike. We describe 1F7, a human CD4bs monoclonal antibody that was found to be exceptionally potent against the HIV-1 primary isolate JR-FL. However, 1F7 failed to neutralize a patient-matched primary isolate, JR-CSF even though the two isolates differ by <10% in gp120 at the protein level. In an HIV-1 cross clade panel (n = 157), 1F7 exhibited moderate breadth, but occasionally achieved considerable potency. In binding experiments using monomeric gp120s of select resistant isolates and domain-swap chimeras between JR-FL and JR-CSF, recognition by 1F7 was limited by sequence polymorphisms involving at least the C2 region of Env. Putative N-linked glycosylation site (PNGS) mutations, notably at position 197, allowed 1F7 to neutralize JR-CSF potently without improving binding to the cognate, monomeric gp120. In contrast, flow cytometry experiments using the same PNGS mutants revealed that 1F7 binding is enhanced on cognate trimeric Env. BN-PAGE mobility shift experiments revealed that 1F7 is sensitive to the diagnostic mutation D368R in the CD4 binding loop of gp120. Our data on 1F7 reinforce how exquisitely targeted CD4bs antibodies must be to achieve cross neutralization of two closely related primary isolates. High-resolution analyses of trimeric Env that show the orientation of glycans and polymorphic elements of the CD4bs that affect binding to antibodies like 1F7 are desirable to understand how to promote immunogenicity of more conserved elements of the CD4bs.

Recognition of membrane-bound fusion-peptide/MPER complexes by the HIV-1 neutralizing 2F5 antibody: implications for anti-2F5 immunogenicity.

The membrane proximal external region (MPER) of the fusogenic HIV-1 glycoprotein-41 harbors the epitope sequence recognized by 2F5, a broadly neutralizing antibody isolated from an infected individual. Structural mimicry of the conserved MPER 2F5 epitope constitutes a pursued goal in the field of anti-HIV vaccine development. It has been proposed that 2F5 epitope folding into its native state is attained in the vicinity of the membrane interface and might involve interactions with other viral structures. Here we present results indicating that oligomeric complexes established between MPER and the conserved amino-terminal fusion peptide (FP) can partition into lipid vesicles and be specifically bound by the 2F5 antibody at their surfaces. Cryo-transmission electron microscopy of liposomes doped with MPER:FP peptide mixtures provided the structural grounds for complex recognition by antibody at lipid bilayer surfaces. Supporting the immunogenicity of the membrane-bound complex, these MPER:FP peptide-vesicle formulations could trigger cross-reactive anti-MPER antibodies in rabbits. Thus, our observations suggest that contacts with N-terminal regions of gp41 may stabilize the 2F5 epitope as a membrane-surface antigen.

Chronic hepatitis C virus infection breaks tolerance and drives polyclonal expansion of autoreactive B cells.

Chronic Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has been linked with B cell lymphoproliferative disorders and several autoimmune-related diseases. The mechanisms of how chronic viral infection affects B cell development and predisposes the patients to autoimmune manifestations are poorly understood. In this study, we established an experimental system to probe the B cell responses and characterize the antibodies from chronic-HCV-infected individuals. We identified an unusual polyclonal expansion of the IgM memory B cell subset in some patients. This B cell subset is known to be tightly regulated, and autoreactive cells are eliminated by tolerance mechanisms. Genetic analysis of the immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy chain variable gene (V(H)) sequences of the expanded cell population showed that the levels of somatic hypermutation (SHM) correlate with the extent of cell expansion in the patients and that the V(H) genes exhibit signs of antigen-mediated selection. Functional analysis of the cloned B cell receptors demonstrated autoreactivity in some of the expanded IgM memory B cells in the patients which is not found in healthy donors. In summary, this study demonstrated that, in some patients, chronic HCV infection disrupts the tolerance mechanism that normally deletes autoreactive B cells, therefore increasing the risk of developing autoimmune antibodies. Long-term follow-up of this expanded B cell subset within the infected individuals will help determine whether these cells are predictors of more-serious clinical manifestations.

Rapid transient production in plants by replicating and non-replicating vectors yields high quality functional anti-HIV antibody.

BACKGROUND: The capacity of plants and plant cells to produce large amounts of recombinant protein has been well established. Due to advantages in terms of speed and yield, attention has recently turned towards the use of transient expression systems, including viral vectors, to produce proteins of pharmaceutical interest in plants. However, the effects of such high level expression from viral vectors and concomitant effects on host cells may affect the quality of the recombinant product. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: To assess the quality of antibodies transiently expressed to high levels in plants, we have expressed and characterised the human anti-HIV monoclonal antibody, 2G12, using both replicating and non-replicating systems based on deleted versions of Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) RNA-2. The highest yield (approximately 100 mg/kg wet weight leaf tissue) of affinity purified 2G12 was obtained when the non-replicating CPMV-HT system was used and the antibody was retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Glycan analysis by mass-spectrometry showed that the glycosylation pattern was determined exclusively by whether the antibody was retained in the ER and did not depend on whether a replicating or non-replicating system was used. Characterisation of the binding and neutralisation properties of all the purified 2G12 variants from plants showed that these were generally similar to those of the Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell-produced 2G12. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the results demonstrate that replicating and non-replicating CPMV-based vectors are able to direct the production of a recombinant IgG similar in activity to the CHO-produced control. Thus, a complex recombinant protein was produced with no apparent effect on its biochemical properties using either high-level expression or viral replication. The speed with which a recombinant pharmaceutical with excellent biochemical characteristics can be produced transiently in plants makes CPMV-based expression vectors an attractive option for biopharmaceutical development and production.

Characterization of a trimeric MPER containing HIV-1 gp41 antigen.

The membrane-proximal external region (MPER) of gp41 is considered as a prime target for the induction of neutralizing antibodies, since it contains the epitopes for three broadly neutralizing antibodies (2F5, 4E10 and Z13). Here we present a novel gp41 construct (HA-gp41) comprising gp41 HR2 and MPER fused to two triple-stranded coiled-coil domains at both ends. HA-gp41 is trimeric, has a high helical content in solution and forms rod-like structures as revealed by negative staining electron microscopy. Immunization of rabbits with HA-gp41 induced antibodies directed against MPER, which failed to exert significant neutralization capacity against envelopes from primary isolates. Thus trimerisation of MPER regions does not suffice to induce a potent neutralizing antibody response specific for conserved regions within gp41.

One step membrane incorporation of viral antigens as a vaccine candidate against HIV.

Liposomes can been used as potential immunoadjuvants, because they have the ability to elicit both a cellular mediated immune response and a humoral immune response. Studies have shown liposomes to be effective immunopotentiators in hepatitis A and influenza vaccines. For all these purposes, liposomes can be prepared by different methods. After disperging suitable membrane lipids in an aqueous phase and spontaneous formation of multilamellar large vesicles (MLV), mechanical procedures such as ultrasonication, homogenization by a French press or by other high pressure devices and, or extrusion through polycarbonate membranes with defined pore sizes lead to a reduction in size and number of lamellae of the vesicles. A second group of preparation procedures uses suitable detergents, e.g., bile salts or alkylglycosides. A third group of procedures starts with dissolving the lipids in an organic solvent and mixing it with an aqueous phase. The concentration of the organic solvent is then reduced by suitable procedures. Here we present a new technique for the preparation of liposomes with associated membrane proteins, where lipid vesicles are formed immediately after injection into a micellar protein solution. The model membrane protein used for these studies is a truncated recombinant gp41 produced in E. coli. This viral membrane antigen is a possible candidate protein for the establishment of HIV-vaccines. The data presented here, show an efficient and reproducible one step membrane protein encapsulation procedure into liposomes in a closed and sterile containment. We examined encapsulation efficiency, membrane protein conformation and immunogenicity of this possible liposomal vaccine candidate, which can be produced in GMP-compliant quality with the described technique.

GMP production of liposomes--a new industrial approach.

A new scalable liposome production system is presented, which is based on the ethanol injection technique. The system permits liposome manufacture regardless of production scale, as scale is determined only by free disposable vessel volumes. Once the parameters are defined, an easy scale up can be performed by just changing the process vessels. These vessels are fully sterilizeable and all raw materials are transferred into the sanitized and sterilized system via 0.2 microm filters to guarantee an aseptic production. Liposome size can be controlled by the local lipid concentration at the injection point depending on process parameters like injection pressure, lipid concentration and injection rate. These defined process parameters are furthermore responsible for highly reproducible results with respect to vesicle diameters and encapsulation rates Compared to other technologies like the film method which is normally followed by size reduction through high pressure homogenization, ultrasonication or extrusion, no mechanical forces are needed to generate homogeneous and narrow distributed liposomes. Another important advantage of this method is the suitability for the entrapment of many different drug substances such as large hydrophilic proteins by passive encapsulation, small amphiphilic drugs by a one step remote loading technique or membrane association of antigens for vaccination approaches.