The genus Microcotyle in Mediterranean scorpaenoids (Teleostei), including the description of Microcotyle merche n. sp. from Helicolenus dactylopterus (Delaroche, 1809).

More than 65 species of the genus Microcotyle Van Beneden & Hesse, 1863, have been described to date, most of them infecting Perciformes. Among the scorpaenoids (Perciformes, formerly Scorpaeniformes) the species of the genus Microcotyle parasitize sebastids and scorpaenids worldwide. In this study, we provide new morphological and molecular data for Microcotyle spp. in sebastids and scorpaenids from the Western Mediterranean and north-east Atlantic. Specimens of Helicolenus dactylopterus (Delaroche, 1809) (n = 107) and Scorpaena spp. (n = 107) were examined and their microcotylid specimens morphologically and molecularly characterized. Microcotyle merche n. sp. ex H. dactylopterus and specimens of Microcotyle algeriensis Ayadi, Gey, Justine & Tazerouti, 2016 from a new host and locality (Scorpaena scrofa from the north-east Atlantic) are herein described. Both species are phylogenetically close, but their morphology is markedly different mostly because the anterior lobe of the haptor present in other Microcotyle species is almost absent in M. algeriensis. Findings of M. merche n. sp. in the Mediterranean also excludes the presence of Microcotyle sebastis in this sea, encouraging the review of the exceptionally large host range and geographical distribution of this species.

Morphometric, molecular and ecological analyses of the parasites of the sharpsnout seabream Diplodus puntazzo Cetti (Sparidae) from the Spanish Mediterranean: implications for aquaculture.

One of the fish species with the highest potential for aquaculture is the sharpsnout seabream, Diplodus puntazzo Cetti. Among other aspects, the development of new fish cultures requires studies of potential pathogens that may compromise survival of the fish in captivity. Moreover, both cultured and wild fish can act as sources or reservoirs of pathogens which may negatively affect other well-established cultures. We have studied the parasite fauna of the wild sharpsnout seabream, and monitored the survival of the parasites in culture conditions. The sharpsnout seabream was sampled from two different Spanish localities and examined for parasites. Additionally, 20 fish were maintained in captivity. Ten of them were examined for parasites after a period of 10 days and a further ten fish after another 10 days. All fish were parasitized with at least four species, with 19 parasite species being identified, seven of which were recorded for the first time in the sharpsnout seabream. These included Microcotyle sp., Magnibursatus bartolii, Steringotrema pagelli, Galactosomum sp., Cardiocephaloides longicollis, Caligus ligusticus and Gnathia vorax. We also report the first records of two parasite species in the wild sharpsnout seabream, the polyopisthocotylean monogeneans Atrispinum seminalis and Sparicotyle chrysophrii. Previously, these parasites had only been recorded in farmed sharpsnout seabream. Most parasites in the skin, gills and alimentary tract disappeared under the conditions of captivity, with the exception of the monogeneans of the genus Lamellodiscus. The information provided about the sharpsnout seabream parasite fauna will be useful to prevent possible problems in fish farms due to some parasite species. Many parasites of the sharpsnout seabream recorded in the present study are shared by the main fish species in Mediterranean aquaculture, the gilthead seabream, thus suggesting the possibility of cross-infections.

Lousy mums: patterns of vertical transmission of an amphibious louse.

In this study, we document patterns of vertical transmission of the amphibious louse Antarctophthirus microchir (Echinophthiriidae) in pups of South American sea lion, Otaria flavescens, from Patagonia. Vertical transmission is fundamental for the long-term stability of A. microchir populations because only pups stay long enough (1 month) on land for the louse to reproduce. A total of 72 pups ≤7 days old from a single rookery were captured and examined for lice. Infection parameters and population structure of A. microchir did not differ among pups collected at the beginning, middle, and end of the reproductive season, suggesting that patterns of early vertical transmission are not affected by the increase of rookery size during this period. Over 60% of 1-day-old pups were infected with A. microchir, and recruitment increased in pups up to 3 days old and then leveled off. In 1-day-old pups, significantly more adults than nymphs were found, but the pattern was reversed in older pups. The number of first-stage nymphs was significantly smaller than that of second- and third-stage nymphs, as it was the number of males vs. females, particularly in 1-day-old pups. Three non-exclusive hypotheses could account for these patterns, i.e., recruitment merely reflects the population structure of A. microchir is cows; the relative ability of lice to pass from cows onto pups increases in advanced instars; and/or natural selection favors transmission of adults, especially females, because they accrue greater fitness. The importance of latter hypothesis should not be underestimated in a species with a tight reproductive schedule.

Intestinal helminth fauna of the South American sea lion Otaria flavescens and fur seal Arctocephalus australis from northern Patagonia, Argentina.

We report on the intestinal helminth fauna of 56 South American sea lions, Otaria flavescens, and 5 South American fur seals, Arctocephalus australis, from northern Patagonia, Argentina. A total of 97,325 helminth specimens were collected from sea lions. Gravid individuals were represented by 6 species of parasites: 1 digenean (Ascocotyle (Ascocotyle) patagoniensis), 1 cestode (Diphyllobothrium spp.), 3 nematodes (Uncinaria hamiltoni, Contracaecum ogmorhini s.s., Pseudoterranova cattani) and 1 acanthocephalan (Corynosoma australe). In addition, third-stage larvae of 2 nematodes (Contracaecum sp. and Anisakis sp. type I) and 3 juvenile acanthocephalans (Andracantha sp., Profilicollis chasmagnathi and Corynosoma cetaceum) were also collected. Andracantha sp., C. ogmorhini s.s. and P. chasmagnathi represent new host records. A total of 1516 helminth specimens were collected from fur seals. Gravid individuals were represented by three species of parasites, namely, Diphyllobothrium spp., C. ogmorhini s.s. and C. australe. In addition, larvae of Contracaecum sp. and P. cattani, juveniles of C. cetaceum and immature cestodes (Tetrabothriidae gen. sp.) were also collected. Corynosoma australe was the most prevalent and abundant parasite in both hosts, accounting for >90% of all specimens. Sea lions and furs seals from northern Patagonia harbour the intestinal helminth communities that could be predicted for otariids, i.e. the combination of species of the genera Corynosoma, Diphyllobothrium, Pseudoterranova, Contracaecum and, in pups, Uncinaria. Additionally, both species of otariid are apparently unsuitable hosts (i.e. non-hosts) for as many as five parasite taxa. The inclusion or exclusion of these species affects estimation of species richness at both component community (11 versus 6 species in sea lions; 7 versus 3 species in fur seals) and infracommunity (mean: 3.1 versus 2.6 in sea lions; 2.2 versus 1.7 species) levels. Information about the reproductive status of helminth species is often lacking in parasitological surveys on otariids and other marine vertebrates, but it is of significance to improve precision in parascript studies or ecological meta-analyses.

Life begins when the sea lion is ashore: microhabitat use by a louse living on a diving mammal host.

Among Anoplura, the family Echinophthiriidae includes species that infest pinnipeds and otters. Previous evidence obtained from pinnipeds infested by echinophthiriids, specifically from seals, indicates that flippers are the preferred infestation sites, while lice from fur seals select areas in the pelage. We studied habitat selection of Antarctophthirus microchir on South American sea lion pups (Otaria flavescens Shaw, 1800) from Patagonia, Argentina, during the austral summer of 2009. We found a clear pattern of habitat selection: eggs are laid on the dorsal surface; nymphs 1 hatch there and then migrate to the belly, where they develop into adults and copulate; and then ovigerous females return to the dorsal surface. On the one hand, nymphs 1 are characterised by their low locomotory ability; therefore, the fact that they migrate as soon as they hatch suggests a clear pressure leading to microhabitat restriction. On the other hand, the described pattern of microhabitat selection seems to respond to the physiological requirements of each stage, which vary according to the physiological process considered, e.g. oviposition, morphogenesis, hatching and development. Accordingly, it appears that A. microchir would prefer the host's ventral area for development and copulation and the dorsal area for oviposition. However, the causes of this pattern are not clear, and many factors could be involved. Considering that sea lion pups periodically soak at high tides, and that prolonged immersion and very high humidity are known to be lethal for lice eggs, selecting the dorsal area would be advantageous for oviposition because it dries much faster. Furthermore, because humidity should be retained for longer periods on the ventral surface of the pup, wetter conditions on the sea lion would prevent desiccation of the nymphs in the very arid environment where O. flavescens breeds.

Assessing host-parasite specificity through coprological analysis: a case study with species of Corynosoma (Acanthocephala: Polymorphidae) from marine mammals.

In this paper we report an investigation of the utility of coprological analysis as an alternative technique to study parasite specificity whenever host sampling is problematic; acanthocephalans from marine mammals were used as a model. A total of 252 scats from the South American sea lion, Otaria flavescens, and rectal faeces from 43 franciscanas, Pontoporia blainvillei, from Buenos Aires Province, were examined for acanthocephalans. Specimens of two species, i.e. Corynosoma australe and C. cetaceum, were collected from both host species. In sea lions, 78 out of 145 (37.9%) females of C. australe were gravid and the sex ratio was strongly female-biased. However, none of the 168 females of C. cetaceum collected was gravid and the sex ratio was not female-biased. Conversely, in franciscanas, 14 out of 17 (82.4%) females of C. cetaceum were gravid, but none of 139 females of C. australe was, and the sex ratio of C. cetaceum, but not that of C. australe, was female-biased. In putative non-hosts, the size of worms was similar to that from specimens collected from prey. Results suggest that both acanthocephalans contact sea lions and franciscanas regularly. However, C. australe and C. cetaceum cannot apparently reproduce, nor even grow, in franciscanas and sea lions, respectively. Coprological analysis may represent a useful supplementary method to investigate parasite specificity, particularly when host carcasses are difficult to obtain.

Aporocotyle mariachristinae n. sp., and A. ymakara Villalba & Fernández, 1986 (Digenea: Aporocotylidae) of the pink cusk-eel, Genypterus blacodes (Ophidiiformes: Ophidiidae) from Patagonia, Argentina.

Aporocotyle mariachristinae n. sp. and A. ymakara Villalba & Fernández, 1986 were collected from the bulbus arteriosus and ventral aorta of pink cusk-eels, Genypterus blacodes (Forster, 1801) from Patagonia, Argentina. A. mariachristinae n. sp. can be distinguished from all the species of Aporocotyle by the asymmetrical extension of posterior caeca (right posterior caecum longer, terminating at the area between mid-level of ovary and posterior body end; left posterior caecum shorter, terminating at the area between mid-level of cirrus sac and posterior to reproductive organs), the distribution of spines along the ventro-lateral body margins and the number of testes. The new species clearly differs from A. ymakara, from the same host species, in the esophagus / body length ratio, the absence of distal loops at caeca, the anterior caeca / posterior caeca length ratio, and the number of testes. Additionally, in A. ymakara the left posterior caecum may be longer than right posterior caecum, while in the new species left posterior caecum is always shorter. The specimen of A. ymakara collected from Argentina is also described. We also provide observations of the distribution of spines in different species of Aporocotyle, including new specimens of A. argentinensis Smith, 1969 from Merluccius hubbsi Marini, 1933. Molecular sequence data obtained from partial 18S and 28S rDNA regions were compared between the new species and other two species of Aporocotyle (A. argentinensis and A. spinosicanalis Williams, 1958). This is a new locality record for A. ymakara, extending the known geographical distribution for this species from Chile to Argentina, and the first report of two species of Aporocotyle in the same host species and locality.

The versatility of simplicity: Structures of Cardiocephaloides longicollis used for different purposes during cercarial transmission.

Transmission and infection strategies are critical for completing the life cycles of trematode parasites, which are characterized by complex life cycles involving multiple hosts and stages. Transmission between the first and second intermediate hosts typically relies on cercariae, a free-swimming larval stage that displays a series of behaviors to efficiently disperse, locate, attach to, and infect the next host. The aim of this study is to provide detailed information on behaviors used by furcocercariae (bifurcated tail) during its transmission from the snail to the fish host, using the laboratory-established model of Cardiocephaloides longicollis (Strigeidae). These cercariae are released from snails into seawater, where they swim, locate, penetrate the skin of fish, and encyst as metacercariae in their brain. In a series of in vivo assays, freshly-emerged cercariae were used to visually study their behavior and locomotion. Histopathology of experimentally infected gilthead seabreams with C. longicollis, taken at sequential post-infections times, were analysed to localize the migrating cercariae to the fish brain. Our results show that simplicity and versatility are the key features for the success of cercariae transmission by using their organs for different purposes. While 80% of the behavior was spent in a resting position, the most common swimming behavior was with tail-first, which is commonly described in furcocercariae to reach the host microhabitat. However, C. longicollis relies more on the furcae of the tail by using them as a propeller providing thrust and guidance when they swim, instead of using the tail stem. After attaching to the fish skin, cercariae rapidly creep on it using the oral- and ventral-suckers simulating a leech-like movement until they find a suitable penetration site. To penetrate, cercariae press the cephalic structures against the skin, while the ventral sucker anchors the cercariae to it. After this, they switch their locomotion to a slow peristaltic movement, opening the path through tissues with the help of their cephalic structures and anchoring their body with their surface spines. This is consistent with the post-penetration histological analyses, which suggested that C. longicollis cercariae move between the cells of the connective tissue and muscle fibers when migrating towards the fish's brain, without provoking relevant tissue damage or host responses. Understanding the versatility of cercarial structures to adapt to external conditions enriches our knowledge on parasites and their transmission ecology, opening the door to the design of avoidance methods in fish farms struggling with harmful parasites.

Epibiotic fauna of the Antarctic minke whale as a reliable indicator of seasonal movements.

Antarctic minke whales, Balaenoptera bonaerensis, breed in tropical and temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere in winter and feed in Antarctic grounds in the austral summer. These seasonal migrations could be less defined than those of other whale species, but the evidence is scanty. We quantitatively describe the epibiotic fauna of Antarctic minke whales and explore its potential to trace migrations. Seven species were found on 125 out of 333 examined Antarctic minke whales captured during the last Antarctic NEWREP-A expedition in the Southern Ocean: the amphipod Balaenocyamus balaenopterae (prevalence = 22.2%), the copepod Pennella balaenoptera (0.6%); three coronulid, obligate barnacles, Xenobalanus globicipitis (11.1%), Coronula reginae (8.7%), C. diadema (0.9%); and two lepadid, facultative barnacles, Conchoderma auritum (9.0%) and C. virgatum (0.3%). Species with prevalence > 8% exhibited a modest increase in their probability of occurrence with whale body length. Data indicated positive associations between coronulid barnacles and no apparent recruitment in Antarctic waters. All specimens of X. globicipitis were dead, showing progressive degradation throughout the sampling period, and a geographic analysis indicated a marked drop of occurrence where the minimum sea surface temperature is < 12 °C. Thus, field detection -with non-lethal methodologies, such as drones- of coronulid barnacles, especially X. globicipitis, on whales in the Southern Ocean could evince seasonal migration. Future investigations on geographical distribution, growth rate, and degradation (for X. globicipitis) could also assist in timing whales' migration.

Host specificity of Oschmarinella rochebruni and Brachycladium atlanticum (Digenea: Brachycladiidae) in five cetacean species from western Mediterranean waters.

We investigated patterns of specificity of liver flukes (fam. Brachycladiidae) in a community of cetaceans from the western Mediterranean. The liver and pancreas of 103 striped dolphins, Stenella coeruleoalba, 18 Risso's dolphins, Grampus griseus, 14 bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, 8 common dolphins, Delphinus delphis, and 5 long-finned pilot whales, Globicephala melas, were analysed for brachycladiid species. Two species were found: Oschmarinella rochebruni in striped dolphins (prevalence (P): 61.2%; mean intensity (MI) (95% CI): 34.2 (25.7-45.6)), and Brachycladium atlanticum in striped dolphins (P: 39.8%; MI: 7.1 (4.8-13.1)) and a single individual of common dolphin (P: 12.5%; intensity: 19), which represents a new host record. A molecular analysis using the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) region of the rDNA gene confirmed that specimens of B. atlanticum were conspecific regardless of host species. Available dietary data suggest that Risso's dolphins, bottlenose dolphins and long-finned pilot whales would contact rarely, if at all, the infective stages of O. rochebruni and B. atlanticum. Neither the prevalence nor the mean abundance of B. atlanticum differed significantly between striped and common dolphins, but a principal component analysis using seven morphometric variables indicated that specimens collected from the common dolphin were stunted. These worms also had fewer eggs compared with specimens typically found in striped dolphins, although the size of the eggs was similar in both host species. Dwarfism and low fecundity have typically been found in helminths infecting unusual host species, and might reflect the lower compatibility of B. atlanticum for common dolphins. In summary, both O. rochebruni and B. atlanticum appear to exhibit a narrow specificity for striped dolphins in the western Mediterranean.

Molecules and morphology reveal cryptic variation among digeneans infecting sympatric mullets in the Mediterranean.

We applied a combined molecular and morphological approach to resolve the taxonomic status of Saccocoelium spp. parasitizing sympatric mullets (Mugilidae) in the Mediterranean. Eight morphotypes of Saccocoelium were distinguished by means of multivariate statistical analyses: 2 of Saccocoelium obesum ex Liza spp.; 4 of S. tensum ex Liza spp.; and 2 (S. cephali and Saccocoelium sp.) ex Mugil cephalus. Sequences of the 28S and ITS2 rRNA gene regions were obtained for a total of 21 isolates of these morphotypes. Combining sequence data analysis with a detailed morphological and multivariate morphometric study of the specimens allowed the demonstration of cryptic diversity thus rejecting the hypothesis of a single species of Saccocoelium infecting sympatric mullets in the Mediterranean. Comparative sequence analysis revealed 4 unique genotypes, thus corroborating the distinct species status of Saccocoelium obesum, S. tensum and S. cephali and a new cryptic species ex Liza aurata and L. saliens recognized by its consistent morphological differentiation and genetic divergence. However, in spite of their sharp morphological difference the 2 morphotypes from M. cephalus showed no molecular differentiation and 4 morphotypes of S. tensum were genetically identical. This wide intraspecific morphological variation within S. tensum and S. cephali suggests that delimiting species of Saccocoelium using solely morphological criteria will be misleading.

Discrimination of fish populations using parasites: Random Forests on a 'predictable' host-parasite system.

We address the effect of spatial scale and temporal variation on model generality when forming predictive models for fish assignment using a new data mining approach, Random Forests (RF), to variable biological markers (parasite community data). Models were implemented for a fish host-parasite system sampled along the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of Spain and were validated using independent datasets. We considered 2 basic classification problems in evaluating the importance of variations in parasite infracommunities for assignment of individual fish to their populations of origin: multiclass (2-5 population models, using 2 seasonal replicates from each of the populations) and 2-class task (using 4 seasonal replicates from 1 Atlantic and 1 Mediterranean population each). The main results are that (i) RF are well suited for multiclass population assignment using parasite communities in non-migratory fish; (ii) RF provide an efficient means for model cross-validation on the baseline data and this allows sample size limitations in parasite tag studies to be tackled effectively; (iii) the performance of RF is dependent on the complexity and spatial extent/configuration of the problem; and (iv) the development of predictive models is strongly influenced by seasonal change and this stresses the importance of both temporal replication and model validation in parasite tagging studies.

Evaluating the presence of microplastics in striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) stranded in the Western Mediterranean Sea.

Litter is a well-known problem for marine species; however, we still know little about the extent to which they're affected by microplastics. In this study, we analyse the presence of this type of debris in Western Mediterranean striped dolphins' intestinal contents over three decades. Results indicated that frequency was high, as 90.5% of dolphins contained microplastics. Of these microplastics, 73.6% were fibres, 23.87% were fragments and 2.53% were primary pellets. In spite of the high frequency of occurrence, microplastic amount per dolphin was relatively low and highly variable (mean ± SD = 14.9 ± 22.3; 95% CI: 9.58-23.4). Through FT-IR spectrometry, we found that polyacrylamide, typically found in synthetic clothes, was the most common plastic polymer. Here, we establish a starting point for further research on how microplastics affect this species' health and discuss the use of striped dolphins as indicators of microplastics at sea.

Population dynamics of Antarctophthirus microchir (Anoplura: Echinophthiriidae) in pups from South American sea lion, Otaria flavescens, in Northern Patagonia.

We analysed population dynamics of the louse Antarctophthirus microchir in pups of the South American sea lion, Otaria flavescens, at the Punta León rookery (Argentina) over a period of 2 years. A total of 136 pups were aged and marked at the beginning of the lactation period ashore, then sampled for lice at different times within 30 days. Sampling was restricted to the chest and belly, two sites where lice were especially abundant. This concentration on ventral areas might protect lice from thermal stress in the austral summer. Infestation patterns in pups 3 days old suggested that the potential for transmission increased from first nymphs to adults. Population trends of each instar with pup age, based on standardised values of abundance, were conserved between years, reflecting the basic dynamics of recruitment and reproduction. However, trends based on log-transformed abundances varied significantly between years; apparently, environmental conditions affected growth of lice populations differently each year. Stage-based deterministic models for population growth of A. microchir suggested generation times from 18 to 23 days. Accordingly, only 2 lice generations might be produced before pups start going to the sea. Shortening the cycle to accommodate a third generation might be risky, whereas a 2-generation cycle might at least result in larger females producing higher numbers of viable offspring.

Morphological and molecular redescription of the myxozoan Unicapsula pflugfelderi Schubert, Sprague & Reinboth 1975 from two teleost hosts in the Mediterranean. A review of the genus Unicapsula Davis 1924.

Elongate plasmodia with myxosporean spores belonging to the genus Unicapsula, Davis, 1924 were found in the skeletal muscle of the striped seabream, Lithognathus mormyrus (L.), a candidate for the mediterranean aquaculture. The only species of Unicapsula described from the Mediterranean is Unicapsula pflugfelderi Schubert et al. 1975, which occurs in the picarel, Spicara smaris (L.). For morphological and molecular comparison of U. pflugfelderi from S. smaris with Unicapsula sp. from L. mormyrus measurements of plasmodia and spores, ultrastructural details and 18S and 28S rDNA sequences were analysed. Whereas plasmodia were 2-3 times larger in S. smaris than in L. mormyrus (length 2.47-0.81 mm; width 0.22-0.09 mm; P = 0.000), spore morphology showed minor differences and both 18S and 28S rDNA sequences were 100% identical identifying the myxozoan as U. pflugfelderi. Scanning electron microscopy of the spores revealed a different shell valve distribution than the one used for the diagnosis of the genus Unicapsula. This resulted in a review of the genus Unicapsula dividing it into two morphological groups of different spore valve arrangement. TEM revealed the presence of a yet undescribed crystalline structure in the sporoplasm of the spores.

Two decades of monitoring in marine debris ingestion in loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta, from the western Mediterranean.

Anthropogenic marine debris is one of the major worldwide threats to marine ecosystems. The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) has established a protocol for data collection on marine debris from the gut contents of the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), and for determining assessment values of plastics for Good Environmental Status (GES). GES values are calculated as percent turtles having more than average plastic weight per turtle. In the present study, we quantify marine debris ingestion in 155 loggerhead sea turtles collected in the period 1995-2016 in waters of western Mediterranean (North-east Spain). The study aims (1) to update and standardize debris ingestion data available from this area, (2) to analyse this issue over two decades using Zero-altered (hurdle) models and (3) to provide new data to compare the only GES value available (off Italian waters). The composition of marine debris (occurrence and amounts of different categories) was similar to that found in other studies for the western Mediterranean and their amounts seem not to be an important threat to turtle survival in the region. Model results suggest that, in the study area, (a) period of stranding or capture, (b) turtle size and (c) latitude are significant predictors of anthropogenic debris ingestion (occurrence and amount) in turtles. The GES value for late juvenile turtles (CCL>40 cm) has decreased in the last ten years in the study area, and this is very similar to that obtained in Italian waters. We also provide a GES value for early juvenile turtles (CCL≤40 cm) for the first time. Recommendations arising from this study include ensuring use of (1) the standardized protocol proposed by the MSFD for assessing marine debris ingestion by loggerhead sea turtles and (2) the ecology of the turtles (neritic vs oceanic), rather than their size, to obtain GES values.

Cardicola aurata sp. n. (Digenea: Sanguinicolidae) from Mediterranean Sparus aurata L. (Teleostei: Sparidae) and its unexpected phylogenetic relationship with Paradeontacylix McIntosh, 1934.

A new sanguinicolid trematode, Cardicola aurata sp. n., is described from gilthead seabream Sparus aurata L., from off the Spanish Mediterranean coast. The morphology of C. aurata sp. n. generally agrees with the diagnosis of the genus, however, in contrast to all other reported Cardicola spp. the male pore is located sub-medially at the posterior end of the body instead of sinistrally before the posterior end of the body. Based on a comparison of the morphology as well as partial 28S and ITS2 rDNA sequence data from the present species with that from closely related species, it was decided to emend the diagnosis of Cardicola rather than create a new genus, as the aberrant position of the male pore is likely to be an autapomorphy. The phylogenetic analyses revealed a close relationship between Cardicola and Paradeontacylix, two genera with considerable morphological differences; C. aurata sp. n. occupies a position intermediate to these genera. Thus, a morphological comparison of Cardicola, Paradeontacylix and Braya, a genus which is morphologically similar to Cardicola but clusters basal to the Cardicola/Paradeontacylix clade, was conducted. The results of this comparison showed that despite large differences with regard to body shape, the organisation of the internal organs is very similar in species of Cardicola and Paradeontacylix. The synopsis of morphological data and molecular phylogeny allows for interpretations regarding the importance of different morphological features for the phylogenetic inference of the Sanguinicolidae.

Insight into the role of cetaceans in the life cycle of the tetraphyllideans (Platyhelminthes: Cestoda).

Four types of tetraphyllidean larvae infect cetaceans worldwide: two plerocercoids differing in size, 'small' (SP) and 'large' (LP), and two merocercoids referred to as Phyllobothrium delphini and Monorygma grimaldii. The latter merocercoid larvae parasitize marine mammals exclusively and exhibit a specialised cystic structure. Adult stages are unknown for any of the larvae and thus the role of cetaceans in the life cycle of these species has been a long-standing problem. The SP and LP forms are thought to be earlier stages of P. delphini and M. grimaldii that are presumed to infect large pelagic sharks that feed on cetaceans. A molecular analysis of the D2 variable region of the large subunit ribosomal DNA gene based on several individuals of each larval type collected from three Mediterranean species of cetaceans showed consistent and unique molecular signatures for each type regardless of host species or site of infection. The degree of divergence suggested that LP, P. delphini and M. grimaldii larvae may represent separate species, whereas SP may be conspecific with M. grimaldii. In all host species, individuals of SP accumulated in the gut areas in which the lymphoid tissue was especially developed. We suggest therefore that these larvae use the lymphatic system to migrate to the abdominal peritoneum and mesenteries where they develop into forms recognizable as M. grimaldii. The plerocercoid stage of P. delphini remains unknown. In a partial phylogenetic tree of the Tetraphyllidea, all larvae formed a clade that included a representative of the genus Clistobothrium, some species of which parasitize sharks such as the great white which is known to feed on cetaceans. A bibliographic examination of tetraphyllidean infections in marine mammals indicated that these larvae are acquired mostly offshore. In summary, the evidence suggests that cetaceans play a significant role in the life cycle of these larvae. In addition, it seems clear that cetaceans act as natural intermediate hosts for P. delphini and M. grimaldii, as within these hosts they undergo development from the plerocercoid stage to the merocercoid stage. Because tetraphyllidean species use fish, cephalopods and other marine invertebrates as intermediate hosts, the inclusion of cetaceans in the life cycle would have facilitated their transmission to apex predators such as the large, lamnid sharks. The biological significance of infections of LP in cetaceans is unclear, but infections do not seem to be accidental as such larvae show high prevalence and abundance as well as a high degree of site specificity, particularly in the anal crypts and bile ducts.

Parasite communities in Boops boops (L.) (Sparidae) after the Prestige oil-spill: detectable alterations.

Environmental pollution affects parasite populations and communities, both directly and through effects on intermediate and final hosts. In this work, we present a comparative study on the structure and composition of metazoan parasite communities in the bogue, Boops boops, from two localities (Galician coast, Spain) affected by the Prestige oil-spill (POS). We focus on the distribution of both individual parasite species and larger functional groupings by using both univariate and multivariate analyses. Our results indicate directional trends in community composition that might be related to the Prestige oil-spill disturbance of the natural coastal communities off Galicia. Endoparasite communities in B. boops reflected a notable change in the composition and abundance of the benthic fauna in the localities studied post-spill probably due to organic enrichment after the POS.

Macroparasites in stranded and bycaught harbour porpoises from German and Norwegian waters.

Parasitological investigations were carried out on harbour porpoises Phocoena phocoena originating from 3 different areas: the German North Sea (28), the German Baltic (18) and Norwegian waters (22). The individuals were bycaught in gill-nets or found stranded during the period 1997 to 2000. A total of 7 species of parasites was identified from the investigated organs. These originated mainly from the respiratory tract and comprised 1 ascaridoid nematode (Anisakis simplex), 4 pseudaliid nematodes (Pseudalius inflexus, Torynurus convolutus, Halocercus invaginatus, Stenurus minor) and 2 trematodes (Campula oblonga, Pholeter gastrophilus). This is the first geographic record of H. invaginatus from German waters. Differences were found in the severity of the parasitic infection between stranded and bycaught animals as well as between porpoises from different areas. A correlation was shown between parasitic infection and observed lesions.