Toward combined photobiological-photochemical formation of kerosene-type biofuels: which small 1,3-diene photodimerizes most efficiently?

A transition from fossil- to bio-based hydrocarbon fuels is required to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; yet, traditional biomass cultivation for biofuel production competes with food production and impacts negatively on biodiversity. Recently, we reported a proof-of-principle study of a two-step photobiological-photochemical approach to kerosene biofuels in which a volatile hydrocarbon (isoprene) is produced by photosynthetic cyanobacteria, followed by its photochemical dimerization into C10 hydrocarbons. Both steps can utilize solar irradiation. Here, we report the triplet state (T1)-sensitized photodimerization of a broader set of small 1,3-dienes to identify which structural features lead to rapid photodimerization. Neat 1,3-cyclohexadiene gave the highest yield (93%) after 24 h of irradiation at 365 nm, followed by isoprene (66%). The long triplet lifetime of 1,3-cyclohexadiene, which is two orders of magnitude longer than those of acyclic dienes, is key to its high photoreactivity and stem from its planar T1 state structure. In contrast, while isoprene is conformationally flexible, it has both photochemical and photobiological advantages, as it is the most reactive among the volatile 1,3-dienes and it can be produced by cyanobacteria. Finally, we explored the influence of solvent viscosity, diene concentration, and triplet sensitizer loading on the photodimerization, with a focus on conditions that are amenable when the dienes are produced photobiologically. Our findings should be useful for the further development of the two-step photobiological-photochemical approach to kerosene biofuels.

Effect of ß-Substitution and ß,ß'-Fusion on the Formation of Boron Complexes of Porphycenes.

Boron(III) complexation was investigated in a series of ß-substituted porphycenes. Unlike meso-arylporphycenes, these macrocycles undergo a facile complexation reaction. Upon fusion of the ß,ß'-positions of the porphycene ligand, the complexation resulted in fast insertion of boron, forming the cisoid-B2OF2 complex. However, in the case of the other ß-substituted porphycenes, only bis-BF2 complexes formed. The effect of these substituents on the core geometry and photophysical properties are elaborated here.

Reactivity of the Major Product of C5'-Oxidative DNA Damage in Nucleosome Core Particles.

The major pathway for DNA damage following hydrogen atom abstraction from the C5'-position results in direct strand scission and concomitant formation of a 5'-aldehyde-containing nucleotide (e.g., T-al). We determined that the half-life of alkali-labile T-al in free DNA under physiological conditions varies from 5-12 days. T-al reactivity was examined at three positions within nucleosome core particles (NCPs). ß-Elimination increased >2.5-fold when T-al was proximal to the lysine-rich histone H4 tail. No difference in reactivity between free DNA and NCPs was observed when T-al was distal from the histone tails. The position-dependent involvement of histone tails in T-al elimination was gleaned from experiments with sodium cyanoborohydride and histone protein variants. The enhancement of T-al elimination in NCPs is significantly smaller than previously observed for abasic sites. Computational studies comparing elimination from T-al and abasic sites indicate that the barrier for the rate-determining step in the latter is 2.6 kcal mol-1 lower and is stabilized by a hydrogen bond between the C4-hydroxy group and phosphate leaving group. The long lifetime for T-al in NCPs, combined with what is known about its repair suggests that this DNA lesion might pose significant challenges within cells.

Versatile Approach for Reliable Determination of Both High and Low Values of Luminescence Quantum Yields.

The determination of luminescence quantum yields by means of relative methods requires setting identical experimental conditions for both sample and reference compounds. This requirement has a critical impact on the applicability of these protocols, as it does not allow for the precise determination of low quantum-yield values using well-characterized high-quantum-yield standards. We show that using the simultaneous absorption and fluorescence-emission measurement (SAFE) approach [ Nawara and Waluk. Anal. Chem. 2017 , 89 , 8650 ], the sample and reference compounds can be effectively measured with different excitation-slit spectral bandpass or integration times, separately optimized for each chromophore. This unique feature simplifies the determination of luminescence quantum yields, allowing measurements of low quantum-yield values using well-characterized high-quantum-yield standards.

Fragmentation of a dioxolanyl radical via nonstatistical reaction dynamics: characterization of the vinyloxy radical by ns time-resolved laser flash photolysis.

The photochemistry of two Barton esters, one derived from a dioxolane carboxylic acid and the other from pivalic acid, was investigated by product analysis and nanosecond laser flash photolysis (LFP). As expected, photolysis of the pivalate ester resulted in formation of the pyridine-2-thiyl and the t-butyl radical. Photolysis of the Barton ester of 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolane-4-carboxylic acid, on the other hand, revealed a complex multi-step fragmentation. In addition to the pyridine-2-thiyl and dioxolanyl radical, we gained evidence for the formation of the vinyloxy radical, CH2[double bond, length as m-dash]CHO˙. The latter was identified in the LFP by its π-complexes with benzene and diphenylether, its rapid quenching by electron-rich arenes and tri-n-butyl tin hydride, and its oxidative power in presence of trifluoroacetic acid as demonstrated by the oxidation of ferrocene to ferrocenium. Formation of CH2[double bond, length as m-dash]CHO˙ can be rationalized via fragmentation of the dioxolanyl radical. As the calculated barriers are too high for the reaction sequence to occur on the LFP time scale, we investigated the fragmentation of the photoexcited Barton ester via Born-Oppenheimer molecular dynamics simulations. In one trajectory, we could observe all reaction steps including ring opening of the dioxolanyl radical, suggesting that the excess energy gained in the ester cleavage and decarboxylation may lead to fragmentation of the hot dioxolanyl radical.

Stable Expanded Porphycene-Based Diradicaloid and Tetraradicaloid.

The synthesis of a bithiophene-bridged 34π conjugated aromatic expanded porphycene 1 and a cyclopentabithiophene bridged 32π conjugated anti-aromatic expanded porphycene 2 by a McMurry coupling strategy is presented. Magnetic measurements and theoretical calculations reveal that both 1 and 2 exhibit an open-shell singlet ground state with significant radical character (y0 =0.63 for 1; y0 =0.68, y1 =0.18 for 2; y0 : diradical character, y1 : tetraradical character) and a small singlet-triplet energy gap (ΔES-T =-3.25 kcal mol-1 for 1 and ΔES-T =-0.92 kcal mol-1 for 2). Despite the open-shell radical character, both compounds display exceptional stability under ambient air and light conditions owing to effective delocalization of unpaired electrons in the extended cyclic π-conjugation pathway.

Influence of Rotator Design on the Speed of Self-Assembled Four-Component Nanorotors: Coordinative Versus Dispersive Interactions.

Four-component nanorotors are prepared by the self-assembly of stator [Cu4(4)]4+ with its four copper(I)-loaded phenanthroline stations and various rotators carrying one, two, or three pyridine terminals. The fourth component, 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane, serves as a connecting axle between rotator and stator. Capitalizing on the heteroleptic pyridyl and phenanthroline metal complexes concept, the rotator's pyridine terminals are connected to the copper(I)-loaded phenanthroline stations (Npy → [Cu(phen)]+) in the STOP state and disconnected in the transition state of rotation. As the barrier of the thermally activated rotation, measured by variable-temperature 1H NMR, is mainly governed by attractive forces between stator stations and rotator terminals, it increases along the series Ea (monopyridine rotator) < Ea (dipyridine rotator) < Ea (tripyridine rotator). However, there are even distinct differences in rate between rotors with equal number of rotator terminals. The change from the 5,10-dipyridyl (cis) to 5,15-dipyridyl (trans) zinc porphyrin rotator enhances the rotational frequency by almost 1000-fold. Density functional theory computational results suggest that not only coordinative Npy → [Cu(phen)]+ interactions but also dispersive attraction influence the barrier of rotation.

Conformational Slippage Determines Rotational Frequency in Five-Component Nanorotors.

Several five-component nanorotors ROT-3 that rotate at different rates were prepared by adding phenanthrolines of distinct lateral size as brake blocks to the four-component nanorotor ROT-2. The brake blocks interfere with the 180° rotor causing the rotational frequency to drop from 97 kHz to 5 kHz. The effect of the rotating brake blocks on the rotational frequency in ROT-3 is accurately predicted by a nanomechanical model called "conformational slippage". For quantification, the interaction of the brake blocks with the trajectory of the main rotator is gauged based on the number of interfering vs. non-interfering conformations as computed by PM6.

Solving the puzzling competition of the thermal C(2)-C(6) vs Myers-Saito cyclization of enyne-carbodiimides.

The mechanism of the thermal cyclization of enyne-carbodiimides 7a-c has been studied computationally by applying the DFT method. The results indicate that enyne-carbodiimides preferentially follow the C(2)-C(6) (Schmittel) cyclization pathway in a concerted fashion although the Myers-Saito diradical formation is kinetically preferred. The experimentally verified preference of the C(2)-C(6) over the Myers-Saito pathway is guided by the inability of the Myers-Saito diradical to kinetically compete in the rate-determining trapping reactions, either inter- or intramolecular, with the concerted C(2)-C(6) cyclization. As demonstrated with enyne-carbodiimide 11, the Myers-Saito channel can be made the preferred pathway if the trapping reaction by hydrogen transfer is no more rate determining.

ß-Octamethoxy-Substituted 22π and 26π Stretched Porphycenes: Synthesis, Characterization, Photodynamics, and Nonlinear Optical Studies.

Three meso-expanded tetrapyrrolic aromatic macrocycles, including 22π and 26π acetylene-cumulene bridged stretched octamethoxyporphycenes and octamethoxy[22]porphyrin-(2.2.2.2), are reported, for the first time, by modification of previously reported synthetic methods. This strategy led to an enhancement in the overall yield of their corresponding octaethyl analogues. The methoxy-substituted expanded porphycenes display slightly blueshifted absorption relative to their ethyl analogues, along with very weak fluorescence, probably due to efficient intramolecular charge transfer (ICT). Additionally, the two-photon absorption (TPA) cross sections of these macrocycles were evaluated; these are strongly related to core expansion of the porphyrin aromaticity through increased meso-bridging carbon atoms as well as conformational flexibility and substitution effects at the macrocyclic periphery. In particular, the octamethoxy stretched porphycenes display strong TPA compared with the octaethyl analogues due to the dominant ICT character of methoxy groups with a maximum TPA cross section of 830 GM at 1700 nm observed for 26π-octamethoxyacetylene-cumuleneporphycene.

Nonstatistical dynamics in the thermal C2-C6/diels-alder cyclization of enyne-allenes: effect of topology.

The thermal C(2)-C(6) (Schmittel) cyclization of an enyne-allene with two aryl rings at the allene terminus experimentally leads to three formal Diels-Alder (DA) cycloaddition products, two of which (involving the dimethylamino phenyl unit) are shown to form in a nonstatistical process. DFT computations on the reaction paths reveal that the two aryl rings (Ph vs PhNMe2) do not interact in a dynamic manner as their minimum energy pathways (MEPs) are separated by a large barrier. The preferential formation of the more-hindered DA product 8 (ortho to the dimethylamino group) over the less-hindered product 9 (para to the dimethylamino group), despite the higher energy TS for 8, suggests the occurrence of nonstatistical dynamics in the cyclization onto the dimethylamino phenyl unit, though. Potential energy surface (PES) computations indicate that the large amount of nonstatistical dynamics (97%) arises from facile IRC dynamics (left picture) that is compared with the non-IRC dynamics of a related system (∼76%, right picture, J. Org. Chem. 2014, 79, 2368).

Nonstatistical dynamics in the thermal Garratt-Braverman/[1,5]-H shift of one ene-diallene: an experimental and computational study.

A mechanistic study of the thermal Garratt-Braverman/[1,5]-H shift of ene-diallene 6 leading to alkenes (E)-8 and (Z)-8 is reported. The product ratio was found to be temperature-independent and does not agree with the computed energy barriers (i.e., TS2E(⧧) and TS2Z(⧧)). On the basis of experimental and DFT computational results, we propose a mechanism that is strongly controlled by nonstatistical dynamic effects.

Quantification of nonstatistical dynamics in an intramolecular Diels-Alder cyclization without trajectory computation.

Experimental and computational (DFT) investigations reveal that enyne-allenes with an aryl group as probe at the allene terminus follow a dynamic non-IRC Diels-Alder cyclization pathway. Starting from two separate C(2)-C(6) (Schmittel) transition states (TS), two distinct reaction paths originate that share a common diradical intermediate, however, without mixing! Because the momentum of the initial TS is transmitted into product formation, we suggest a simple protocol without trajectory computations to estimate the fraction of molecules that follow nonstatistical dynamics: It was calculated from the partitioning at the TSs, as derived from DFT computations, and the experimental ratio. The thus-determined percentage of dynamically reacting molecules only slightly depends on the depth of the intermediate well but rather on ΔΔG(‡) of the initial and the follow-up transition states.

A one-pot multistep cyclization yielding thiadiazoloimidazole derivatives.

A versatile synthetic procedure is described to prepare the benzimidazole-fused 1,2,4-thiadiazoles 2a-c via a methanesulfonyl chloride initiated multistep cyclization involving the intramolecular reaction of an in-situ generated carbodiimide with a thiourea unit. The structure of the intricate heterocycle 2a was confirmed by single-crystal X-ray analysis and its mechanism of formation supported by DFT computations.

3,6,13,16-Tetrasubstituted Porphycene: The Missing Link in Porphycene Chemistry.

We have introduced the first 3,6,13,16-tetrasubstituted porphycene as its tetramethoxy analogue. This substitution pattern is one of the most general patterns yet missing in this isomeric porphyrin chemistry. This porphycene exhibits intense fluorescence along with the ability to coordinate with divalent metal ions; in particular, it forms the first stable Zn(II) complex among the tetrasubstituted porphycenes. Notably, the molecular structure of Zn1•Py displays supramolecular chirality.

Microwave-vacuum drying of flax fiber for biocomposite production.

Flax fiber is one of the important bast fiber available in North America which has low density and good mechanical properties for reinforcing various polymers to develop industrial biocomposite. But the hydrophilic nature of the fiber leads to poor adhesion between the fiber and the polymer matrices which, in turn, leads to poor dimensional stability. To enhance the adhesion between polymer matrix and fiber, chemical treatments of the fiber are necessary. After these treatments, the fiber needs to be uniformly dried to minimum moisture content for better compounding of flax in polymer matrices. Drying by conventional dryers at higher temperature usually results in overall quality loss due to surface drying, and it is also time consuming and energy intensive. In recent years, the microwave has been effectively used for enhancing bulk drying of biomaterials especially when coupled with vacuum. Such a volumetric heat transfer mechanism coupled with drying in vacuum provides an ideal low-temperature drying technique resulting in better organoleptic quality. In this study, the drying characteristics of flax fiber were studied under microwave-vacuum condition. The drying experiments were conducted in Enwave Microwave-vacuum dryer using three different process variables viz., microwave power (750 W and 375 W), vacuum level (25, 10, and 0 in Hg) and time of drying (0 to 14 mins). In order to select the appropriate drying curve equation, the drying data was fitted in three different models viz., Page model, single exponential model and approximation of diffusion model.

Four-component zinc-porphyrin/zinc-salphen nanorotor.

An off-axis supramolecular rotor was composed of four components: a zinc-porphyrin based stator with four phenanthroline stations and a zinc-salphen based rotator were self-assembled with DABCO and four copper(i) ions to furnish the rotor ROT-2 in quantitative yield. The DABCO serves as a connecting axle between the rotator and the stator, while the rotator is additionally connected to two copper(i)-loaded phenanthroline stations of the stator via its two pyridine terminals (Npy → [Cu(phen)]+). For the thermally activated rotation both Npy → [Cu(phen)]+ interactions have to be cleaved. Due to the high energy barrier of the rotation the slow motion was monitored by ROESY. The reduced speed (k298 = 0.2 s-1) was rationalised in terms of ground state stabilisation of the rotor as suggested by computational insight. Additional VT 1H-NMR investigation was undertaken to study the motion of DABCO that is sandwiched between zinc porphyrin and zinc salphen. The diagnostic splitting of the geminal DABCO protons was rationalised on the basis of the asymmetry induced by the salphen that generates a diastereotopic environment. Computations reproduced the experimental NMR with excellent agreement.

Mechanistic Information from Nonstationary Points.

The thermal cyclization of enyne-carbodiimides substituted at both the alkyne and carbodiimide terminus showed two curved Hammett correlations (log k/k0 against σp) that were fully reproduced by DFT (density functional theory) computational results. The latter suggest a concerted mechanism, but the transition state (TS) analysis failed to reveal any mechanistic insight about the reason for a curved Hammett correlation. Instead a preTS inspection, i.e., examination of the electronic and steric details on route between reactant and TS, furnished a detailed picture of the mechanism.

ß-Tetrachlorotetramethoxyporphycenes: positional effect of substituents on structure and photophysical properties.

We report the regiospecific synthesis of the first chloro-substituted porphycenes as two positional isomers of ß-tetrachlorotetramethoxyporphycene. The positional effect of the substituents on these isomers could be clearly distinguished in their structure and photophysical properties.

ß-Decamethoxysapphyrin and Its N-Benzyl Analogue.

The synthesis of a highly electron-rich decamethoxysapphyrin and its 27-N-benzyl analogue is reported for the first time. The effects of ß-methoxy and 27-N-benzyl substitution on structure, anion binding, absorption, and electrochemical properties were explored in detail. Upon 27-N-benzyl substitution, counteranion-induced structural deformation arises in the diprotonated state, which could be clearly noticed both in solution (1)H NMR study and solid-state structural analysis. This type of anion-induced structural deformation is noted for the first time in ß-substituted sapphyrins. Further, the free base sapphyrins generate singlet oxygen with moderate efficiency (∼42%); hence, they may act as good photosensitizers.