Collegiate student-athlete sex, years of sport eligibility completed, and sport contact level influence on concussion reporting intentions and behaviours.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine whether sex, years of sport eligibility completed, and sport contact level influenced student-athletes' concussion reporting intentions and behaviours. RESEARCH DESIGN: Cross-sectional. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Student-athletes (n = 828) reported their sex, years of sport eligibility completed, sport, and completed concussion reporting intentions and behaviours surveys. Nonparametric statistics were conducted to compare intentions and behaviours between groups (alpha = 0.05). MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Females had higher indirect intentions to report concussion than males (p = 0.035), but did not differ in direct intentions (p = 0.258) or behaviours (indirect: p = 0.756; direct: p = 0.686). Intentions (indirect: p = 0.383; direct: p = 0.397) and behaviours (indirect: p = 0.154; direct: p = 0.999) did not differ between years of sport eligibility completed. Limited/non-contact sport student-athletes intended to report more concussions than those in collision/contact sports (indirect: p = 0.001; direct: p = 0.021), but did not differ in behaviours (indirect: p = 0.184; direct: p = 0.497). CONCLUSIONS: Data suggest that female and limited/non-contact sport student-athletes intended to report more concussions, however differences did not translate to reporting behaviours.

The Influence of Heavier Football Helmet Faceguards on Head Impact Location and Severity.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether players with heavier faceguards have increased odds of sustaining top of the head impacts and head impacts of higher severity. DESIGN: Cohort study. SETTING: On-field. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty-five division I collegiate football players. INTERVENTIONS: Faceguard mass was measured. Head impact location and severity (linear acceleration [gravity], rotational acceleration [radian per square second], and Head Impact Technology severity profile [unitless]) were captured for 19 379 total head impacts at practices using the Head Impact Telemetry System. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Players' faceguards were categorized as either heavier (>480 g) or lighter (≤480 g) using a median split. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were computed for sustaining top of the head impacts between faceguard groups using a random intercepts generalized logit model. We compared head impact severity between groups using random intercepts general linear models (α = 0.05). Player position was included in all models. RESULTS: Overall, the 4 head impact locations were equally distributed across faceguard groups (F(3,26) = 2.16, P = 0.117). Football players with heavier faceguards sustained a higher proportion impacts to the top of the head (24.7% vs 17.5%) and had slightly increased odds of sustaining top (OR, 1.72; 95% CI, 1.01-2.94) head impacts rather than front of the head impacts. CONCLUSIONS: Football players wearing heavier faceguards might be slightly more prone to sustaining a higher proportion of top of the head impacts, suggesting that greater faceguard mass may make players more likely to lower their head before collision. Individuals involved with equipment selection should consider the potential influence of faceguard design on head impact biomechanics when recommending the use of a heavier faceguard.

Longitudinal cardiac remodeling in collegiate American football players as assessed by echocardiography during their collegiate career.

BACKGROUND: Studies on the longitudinal effects of intense physical training on cardiac remodeling are limited, especially in American collegiate football players. HYPOTHESIS: College-level American football training will result in remodeling in a pattern consistent of a sport with moderate static and dynamic demands with increases in both wall and chamber sizes. METHODS: We studied 85 American collegiate football players who underwent transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) for asymptomatic or mild COVID-19-related illness and compared the changes in echo dimensions to their preparticipation screening TTE. Pre- and posttraining variables were compared using a paired t-test for normally distributed variables. RESULTS: Mean age was 19 years ± 1 and 61% of athletes were Black. Mean follow-up between TTEs was 21 ± 13 months. There was an increase in left atrial volume index (26.4 ± 5.5 to 32.8 ± 8.4 mL/m2 , p < .001), LV end diastolic diameter (5.13 ± 0.4 to 5.27 ± 0.4 cm, p = .003), basal RV diameter (3.28 ± 0.7 to 3.83 ± 0.5 cm, p = <.001), LV mass index (86.7 ± 15.3 to 90.1 ± 15.3, p = .015), and aortic root diameter (3.1 ± 0.4 to 3.2 ± 0.3 cm, p = .03) from pre- to posttraining, with a slightly greater magnitude in athletes with >2 years of training. Presence of left atrial enlargement (≥35 mL/m2 ) increased from 2.9% to 29% pre- to postparticipation in athletes with >2 years training. No significant changes in wall thickness, diastolic function, or right ventricular systolic function were observed. CONCLUSION: American football players college-level training was associated with increases in left and right ventricular chamber sizes, left atrial size, and aortic root diameter.

Blood pressure characteristics of collegiate female athletes: A call for more focused attention on young women's health.

Background: There is a paucity of data describing the association between blood pressure (BP) and cardiac remodeling in female collegiate athletes. Methods: This retrospective cohort review describes the BP characteristics and echocardiographic features of female collegiate athletes during preparticipation evaluation. We evaluated data from 329 female athletes at two National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I universities who underwent preparticipation evaluation that included medical history, physical examination, 12-lead electrocardiography, and 2-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography. BP values were divided into categories of normal, elevated, stage 1 and stage 2 hypertension based on 2017 ACC/AHA Guidelines. Left ventricular mass index was calculated and indexed to body surface area and further classified into concentric remodeling, concentric hypertrophy, and eccentric hypertrophy. Results: Normal BP values were noted in 184 (56%) female athletes, 88 (26.7%) had elevated BP and 57 (17.3%) had BP values indicating stage 1 or 2 hypertension. The majority of participants were white (n = 136, 73.9%). There was significantly higher body surface area in female athletes with higher BP values: 1.85 ± 0.18 in the stage 1 and 2 hypertension range, 1.82 ± 0.18 in the elevated BP range versus 1.73 ± 0.16 in the normal BP range (p < 0.001). Conclusions: There was a trend toward higher incidence of concentric and eccentric hypertrophy in athletes with higher than normal BP, however no statistical significance was noted. Elevated BP values were frequent among female collegiate athletes, and there is evidence of cardiac remodeling associated with higher BP values.

Preparticipation Cardiac Evaluation Findings in a Cohort of Collegiate Female Athletes.

Knowledge of cardiovascular adaptations in athletes has predominantly focused on males, with limited data available on females who compromise a substantial percentage of all collegiate athletes. A multicenter retrospective cohort review of preparticipation cardiovascular screening data of 329 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I female athletes was performed. This included physical exams, electrocardiograms, and echocardiograms. Female athletes in class IB sports had elevated systolic blood pressure (p = 0.01). For electrocardiograms, 7 (2%) had abnormal findings: 100% were white; 6 of 7 (86%) participated in IIC sports. Black athletes had longer PR intervals (p ≤ 0.001), whereas white athletes had longer QTc and QRS durations (p = 0.02 and 0.01, respectively). Athletes in IC and IIC sports had longer QTc intervals (p = 0.01). For echocardiographic parameters, no differences were noted based on race. However, significant differences were noted based on classification of sport: athletes in class IC sports had higher left-atrial volume indexes and E/A ratios. Athletes in class IB and IIC had increased left-ventricular wall thicknesses and aortic root dimensions. In conclusion, among one of the largest cohorts of collegiate female athlete preparticipation cardiac screening data to date, significant differences in various parameters based on classification of sport and race were observed. These categorizations should be considered when interpreting cardiovascular screening in female collegiate athletes to improve screening and guide future research.

Examination of collegiate student-athlete concussion reporting intentions and behavior.

BACKGROUND: Clinicians rely on student-athletes to self-report concussion symptoms, but more than 50% of concussions go undisclosed. AIM: The aim of this study was to determine whether knowledge, attitudes, subjective norms, self-efficacy, social identity, and athletic identity explain variability in student-athlete concussion reporting intentions and behavior. MATERIALS AND METHODS: One hundred and forty-seven Division I and II collegiate student-athletes (male=23, female=56, missing=168; age=19.04±1.98 years) completed survey segments regarding the following predictor variables: Concussion knowledge, attitudes, subjective norms, self-efficacy, social identity, and athletic identity; and the following criterion variables: Reporting intentions (symptom and concussion reporting) and reporting behavior (symptom and concussion reporting) (completion rate=29.2%). Separate linear and logistic regressions were performed for each criterion variable. Backward elimination Akaike Information Criterion was applied to determine the best fit model. RESULTS: A one-point increase in knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy predicted a significant 0.55, 0.23, and 0.31 increase in symptom reporting intentions, and 0.24, 0.30, and 0.33 increase in concussion reporting intentions of concussion reporting. As self-efficacy increased, symptom reporting behavior increased by 140%. When knowledge increased, concussion reporting behavior decreased by 23%. Whereas when subjective norms increased, concussion reporting behavior increased by 23%. CONCLUSIONS: A student-athletes' confidence, or self-efficacy, was a frequent predictor of concussion reporting intentions and behavior. RELEVANCE FOR PATIENTS: Clinicians should aim to increase student-athlete knowledge, attitudes, and subjective norms, but most importantly their confidence in reporting concussions.

Coach, sports medicine, and parent influence on concussion care seeking intentions and behaviors in collegiate student-athletes.

BACKGROUND: Sport is a socio-ecological framework where student-athletes are part of a larger community of stakeholders, including coaches, sports medicine professionals (SMPs), and parents. This framework may hold influence over whether student-athletes seek care for a concussion. AIM: We aimed to describe, compare, and determine the influence of stakeholder concussion knowledge, attitudes, and concussion scenario responses. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We recruited a sample of 477 student-athletes and their 27 coaches (response rate=46.6%), 24 SMPs (48.7%), and 31 parents/guardians (4.8%). Stakeholder surveys assessed their concussion knowledge, attitudes toward care seeking, and concussion scenario responses. Surveys administered to student-athletes assessed their concussion care seeking intentions and behaviors. Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare responses between stakeholder groups and to determine the differences in student-athlete intentions and behaviors (alpha=0.05). RESULTS: SMPs had significantly better knowledge (p<0.001) and concussion scenario responses (p<0.001) compared to both coaches and parents. SMPs also had significantly better attitudes compared to parents, but not coaches (p=0.038). Coach concussion scenario responses (p=0.044) and SMP knowledge positively influenced student-athletes' concussion care seeking intentions (p=0.049). Parent responses were not associated with their child's concussion care seeking intentions and behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: The gap in coach and parent concussion knowledge and concussion scenario response relative to SMPs is a preliminary target for stakeholder concussion education and supports the current sports medicine model where SMPs primarily disseminate concussion education. Stakeholders, specifically coaches and SMPs, do hold influence over collegiate athlete concussion care seeking intentions and behaviors. RELEVANCE FOR PATIENTS: Stakeholders should be addressed within educational efforts aimed at student-athletes and should also complete stakeholder-specific concussion education.

Improving Concussion Reporting across National College Athletic Association Divisions Using a Theory-Based, Data-Driven, Multimedia Concussion Education Intervention.

Although a base level of knowledge is needed to recognize a concussion, knowledge-focused concussion educational materials ignore multifaceted barriers to concussion reporting. We compared student-athlete concussion reporting intentions and behaviors prior to and 1 year after exposure to an intervention or control treatment. We randomly assigned 891 collegiate student-athletes from three universities (Divisions I, II, III) to either the control group (National College Athletic Association [NCAA] Concussion Fact Sheet) or intervention group (theory-based, data-driven, multimedia, simulated concussion reporting module). A final sample of 520 student-athletes (control = 253, intervention = 267, expired eligibility = 189, left university = 182) completed intentions and behaviors surveys immediately prior to and 1 year after the educational intervention, and a second survey to assess the intervention effect. We compared intentions using 2 x 2 mixed model analyses of variance (ANOVAs). Behaviors and educational intervention effect were assessed using logistic regression models (α = 0.05). The intervention group had significantly improved concussion reporting intentions at 1-year follow-up relative to the control group (p = 0.009), but had similar odds for behaviors. The intervention group had 2.42 times greater odds of rating the module as "very effective," rather than "not effective" relative to the control group (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.10,5.33). Relative to the control group, the intervention group had significantly greater odds of responding that the concussion education "greatly improved" rather than "did not improve" their knowledge (odds ratio [OR]: 2.49, 95% CI:1.25,4.96), attitudes (OR: 2.22, 95% CI: 1.23,4.03), self-efficacy (OR: 1.95,95% CI: 1.05,3.60), and intentions (OR: 1.86,95% CI: 1.03,3.35). The intervention was more effective at targeting elements of the overall sport culture in a way that substantively improved concussion reporting. We recommend use of this intervention in combination with other evidence-based educational materials.

Echocardiographic measurements of aortic root diameter (ARD) in collegiate football Athletes at pre-participation evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Some remodelling of the aortic root may be expected to occur with exercise but can already vary due to different body sizes, compositions and genetic predispositions. Attributing the cause of borderline aortic root diameter (ARD) values to either physiological or pathological conditions in American college football athletes is difficult as there is very limited normal reference values in this population. Body surface area (BSA) specific norms are thought to be useful in other cardiac measurements of football athletes. METHODS: A retrospective cohort review of pre-participation examination (PPE) transthoracic echocardiogram data from collegiate football athletes was performed. ARD was analysed by field position (linemen, n=137; non-linemen, n=238), race (black, n=216; white, n=158) and BSA for predictive value and associations. Values were compared with non-athlete norms, and collegiate football athlete-specific normal tables were created. RESULTS: Only 2.7% of football athletes had ARD measurements above normal non-athlete reference values and the mean athlete ARD values were lower than non-athlete values. No athletes had an aortic root >40 mm or were disqualified due to underlying cardiac pathology. Univariate analyses indicated linemen position and increasing BSA was associated with larger values for ARD. BSA outperformed race in predicting ARD. Normal tables were created for ARD stratified by BSA group classification (low, average and high BSA). Proposed clinical cut-offs for normal and abnormal values are reported for raw echocardiograph metrics and their BSA indexed scores. CONCLUSIONS: Non-athlete reference values for ARD appear applicable for defining upper limits of normal for most collegiate football athletes. BSA-specific normal values may be helpful in interpreting results for athletes that exceed non-athlete norms.

Echocardiographic measurements of left ventricular end-diastolic diameter and interventricular septal diameter in collegiate football athletes at preparticipation evaluation referenced to body surface area.

BACKGROUND: Are borderline echocardiogram structural measurements due to physiological adaptation or pathology in college football players? The normal reference data are very limited in this population. We report left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVEDD) and interventricular septal diameter (IVSD) echocardiogram findings in college football athletes. METHODS AND RESULTS: A retrospective cohort review of preparticipation examination transthoracic echocardiogram measurements of LVEDD and IVSD from 375 American collegiate football athletes cleared for participation from the University of Florida in 2012-2017 and University of Georgia in 2010-2015 was performed.LVEDD and IVSD were analysed by field position (lineman, n=137; non-lineman, n=238), race (black, n=216; white, n=158) and body surface area (BSA) for associations. Values were compared with non-athlete norms, and collegiate football athlete-specific reference norm tables were created.Twenty-one (5.6%) athletes had LVEDD and 116 (31%) had IVSD measurements above the reference normal non-athlete values. Univariate analyses indicated that the lineman position and increasing BSA were associated with larger values for LVEDD and IVSD. Black race was associated with larger IVSD values, and white race was associated with larger LVEDD values. Player position correlated strongly with BSA (r>0.7); we created normal reference tables for LVEDD and IVSD, stratified by BSA group classification (low, average and high BSA). Proposed clinical cut-offs for normal and abnormal values are reported for raw echocardiograph metrics and BSA-indexed scores. CONCLUSIONS: A significant number of collegiate football athletes had LVEDD and IVSD values above non-athlete norms. BSA-specific normal values help clinicians interpret results for football athletes.

Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate men's football injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 1988-1989 through 2003-2004.

OBJECTIVE: To review 16 years of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) injury surveillance data for men's football and identify potential areas for injury prevention initiatives. BACKGROUND: Football is a high-velocity collision sport in which injuries are expected. Football tends to have one of the highest injury rates in sports. Epidemiologic data helps certified athletic trainers and other clinicians identify injury trends and patterns to appropriately design and institute injury prevention protocols and then measure their effects. MAIN RESULTS: During the 16-year reporting period, about 19% of the Division I, II, and III NCAA institutions sponsoring football participated in the Injury Surveillance System. The results from the 16-year study period show little variation in the injury rates over time: games averaged 36 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures (A-Es); fall practice, approximately 4 injuries per 1000 A-Es; and spring practice, about 10 injuries per 1000 A-Es. The game injury rate was more than 9 times higher than the in-season practice injury rate (35.90 versus 3.80 injuries per 1000 A-Es, rate ratio = 9.1, 95% confidence interval = 9.0, 9.2), and the spring practice injury rate was more than 2 times higher than the fall practice injury rate (9.62 versus 3.80 injuries per 1000 A-Es, rate ratio = 2.5, 95% confidence interval = 2.5, 2.6). The rate ratio for games versus fall practices was greatest for upper leg contusions (18.1 per 1000 A-Es), acromioclavicular joint sprains (14.0 per 1000 A-Es), knee internal derangements (13.4 per 1000 A-Es), ankle ligament sprains (12.0 per 1000 A-Es), and concussions (11.1 per 1000 A-Es). RECOMMENDATIONS: Football is a complex sport that requires a range of skills performed by athletes with a wide variety of body shapes and types. Injury risks are greatest during games. Thus, injury prevention measures should focus on position-specific activities to reduce the injury rate. As equipment technology improves for the helmet, shoulder pads, and other protective devices, appropriate injury surveillance procedures should be performed to determine the effect of the new equipment on injury rates. A consistent evaluation of injury trends and patterns will assist decision makers in designing injury prevention techniques in areas that warrant the greatest attention and suggesting rule changes and modifications based on the data.