SH2B1beta adaptor is a key enhancer of RET tyrosine kinase signaling.

The RET gene encodes two main isoforms of a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) implicated in various human diseases. Activating germ-line point mutations are responsible for multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2-associated medullary thyroid carcinomas, inactivating germ-line mutations for Hirschsprung's disease, while somatic rearrangements (RET/PTCs) are specific to papillary thyroid carcinomas. SH2B1beta, a member of the SH2B adaptors family, and binding partner for several RTKs, has been recently described to interact with proto-RET. Here, we show that both RET isoforms and its oncogenic derivatives bind to SH2B1beta through the SRC homology 2 (SH2) domain and a kinase activity-dependent mechanism. As a result, RET phosphorylates SH2B1beta, which in turn enhances its autophosphorylation, kinase activity, and downstream signaling. RET tyrosine residues 905 and 981 are important determinants for functional binding of the adaptor, as removal of both autophosphorylation sites displaces its recruitment. Binding of SH2B1beta appears to protect RET from dephosphorylation by protein tyrosine phosphatases, and might represent a likely mechanism contributing to its upregulation. Thus, overexpression of SH2B1beta, by enhancing phosphorylation/activation of RET transducers, potentiates the cellular differentiation and the neoplastic transformation thereby induced, and counteracts the action of RET inhibitors. Overall, our results identify SH2B1beta as a key enhancer of RET physiologic and pathologic activities.

The full oncogenic activity of Ret/ptc2 depends on tyrosine 539, a docking site for phospholipase Cgamma.

RET/PTC oncogenes, generated by chromosomal rearrangements in papillary thyroid carcinomas, are constitutively activated versions of proto-RET, a gene coding for a receptor-type tyrosine kinase (TK) whose ligand is still unknown. RET/PTCs encode fusion proteins in which proto-RET TK and C-terminal domains are fused to different donor genes. The respective Ret/ptc oncoproteins display constitutive TK activity and tyrosine phosphorylation. We found that Ret/ptcs associate with and phosphorylate the SH2-containing transducer phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma). Two putative PLCgamma docking sites, Tyr-505 and Tyr-539, have been identified on Ret/ptc2 by competition experiments using phosphorylated peptides modelled on Ret sequence. Transfection experiments and biochemical analysis using Tyr-->Phe mutants of Ret/ptc2 allowed us to rule out Tyr-505 and to identify Tyr-539 as a functional PLCgamma docking site in vivo. Moreover, kinetic measurements showed that Tyr-539 is able to mediate high-affinity interaction with PLCgamma. Mutation of Tyr-539 resulted in a drastically reduced oncogenic activity of Ret/ptc2 on NIH 3T3 cells (75 to 90% reduction) both in vitro and in vivo, which correlates with impaired ability of Ret/ptc2 to activate PLCgamma. In conclusion, this paper demonstrates that Tyr-539 of Ret/ptc2 (Tyr-761 on the proto-RET product) is an essential docking site for the full transforming potential of the oncogene. In addition, the present data identify PLCgamma as a downstream effector of Ret/ptcs and suggest that this transducing molecule could play a crucial role in neoplastic signalling triggered by Ret/ptc oncoproteins.

Clonal immunoglobulin gene rearrangements and normal T-cell receptor, bcl-2, and c-myc genes in primary cutaneous B-cell lymphomas.

Fourteen cases of primary cutaneous B-cell lymphomas were investigated at the immunohistochemical and molecular level to further characterize this newly defined entity. Neoplastic cells from all cases, phenotyped with a panel of monoclonal antibodies, were positive for HLA-DR, for the B-cell markers CD19, CD22, but not CD23 (except one case), and negative for the T-cell marker CD2. Monoclonal immunoglobulin light chains were demonstrated in six cases. The reactivity with the Ki-67 monoclonal antibody indicated that the neoplastic cells are proliferating. In five biopsies the presence of dendritic cells infiltrating the neoplastic areas was revealed using the monoclonal antibody Kim4b. By Southern blot analysis, clonal rearrangement of the immunoglobulin heavy chain gene (involving one or both alleles) was shown in 12 of 14 cases and of the light chain genes in 13 cases. The bcl-2 oncogene, normally involved in nodal follicular lymphomas, was in germ-line configuration. The c-myc and the beta and gamma chain genes of the T-cell receptor were also in the germ-line configuration. None of the cases presented Epstein-Barr virus sequences. These data indicate that primary cutaneous lymphomas of B-cell origin share morphological and phenotypic similarities with the nodal B-cell lymphomas of follicular histotype, are proliferating, and express in 45% of cases clear monoclonal immunoglobulin light chain; the molecular analysis confirms the B-cell derivation and the monoclonal nature of this neoplasia; it also shows that neither bcl-2 nor c-myc oncogenes are involved and that no inappropriate rearrangements of the T-cell receptor genes are found in this lymphoma.

Grb2 binding to the different isoforms of Ret tyrosine kinase.

The RET proto-oncogene encodes two isoforms of a receptor tyrosine kinase which plays a role in neural crest and kidney development. Ret ligands have been recently identified as the neuron survival factor GDNF (Glial-Derived Neurotrophic Factor) and Neurturin. Somatic rearrangements of RET, designated RET/PTCs, have been frequently detected in papillary thyroid carcinomas. In addition, distinct germ-line mutations of RET gene have been associated with the inherited cancer syndromes MEN (Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia) 2A, 2B and FMTC (Familial Medullar Thyroid Carcinomas) as well as with the congenital megacolon or Hirschsprung's disease, thus enlightening a significant role of this receptor gene in diverse human pathologic conditions. In this study, by performing classical inhibition experiments using synthetic phosphopeptides and by site-directed mutagenesis of the putative docking site, we have determined that for Grb2 the latter is provided by the tyrosine 620 of Ret/ptc2 long isoform (corresponding to Tyr 1096 on proto-Ret). However, in intact cells, the interaction of Grb2 with the two short and long Ret isoforms expressed separately is of similar strength, thus suggesting that Ret short isoform interaction with Grb2 could be mediated not only by Shc but also by a molecule that binds preferentially to this isoform. This possibility is supported by the evidence that the mutant Ret/ptc2Y620F long isoform displays a weak coimmunoprecipitation with Grb2 and that this mutant, lacking the docking site for Grb2 but owing all the others phosphotyrosines, surprisingly displays a reduced transforming activity compared to that of the two WTs oncogenes. We thus conclude that in intact cells both Ret isoforms bind to Grb2, although with different modalities. In addition, the present results are in agreement with the possibility that different signal transduction pathways are associated with the two isoforms of Ret.

Identification of Shc docking site on Ret tyrosine kinase.

The RET proto-oncogene encodes two isoforms of a receptor type tyrosine kinase which plays a role in neural crest and kidney development. Distinct germ-line mutations of RET have been associated with the inherited cancer syndromes MEN2A, MEN2B and FMTC as well as with the congenital disorder Hirschsprung disease (HSCR), whereas somatic rearrangements (RET/PTCs) have been frequently detected in the papillary thyroid carcinoma. Despite these findings, suggesting a relevant role for RET product in development and neoplastic processes, little is known about the signalling triggered by this receptor. In this study, we have demonstrated that the transducing adaptor molecule Shc is recruited and activated by both Ret isoforms and by the rearranged cytoplasmatic Ret/ptc2 oncoproteins as well as by the membrane bound receptor activated by MEN2A or by MEN2B associated mutations. Moreover, our analysis has identified the Ret tyrosine residue and the Shc domains involved in the interaction. In fact, here we show that both the phosphotyrosine binding domains of Shc, PTB and SH2, interact with Ret/ptc2 in vitro. However, PTB domain binds 20 folds higher amount of Ret/ptc2 than SH2. The putative binding site for either SH2 and PTB domains has been identified as Tyr586 of Ret/ptc2 (Tyr1062 on proto-Ret). In keeping with this finding, by using RET/PTC2-Y586F mutant, we have demonstrated that this tyrosine residue, the last amino acid but one before the divergence of the two Ret isoforms, is the docking site for Shc.

DNA methylation of coding and non-coding regions of the human H-RAS gene in normal and tumor tissues.

To study a possible role of DNA methylation in the regulation of expression of the human H-RAS gene in vivo, 41 samples of different normal tissues and 33 tumors of various histotypes were analysed for DNA methylation. In a subset of normal tissues the RNA expression was also examined. The promoter region of the gene showed the features of a CpG island being CpG rich and unmethylated in all the normal tissues and tumors. The coding region displayed an intermediate level of methylation in the majority of normal and tumor tissues. Among the normal tissues only thymus DNA was found to be hypermethylated, while testes and sperm cells DNAs were hypomethylated. The 3' region was found to be completely methylated only in sperm cells and was never completely demethylated. The majority of the tissues showed an intermediate level of methylation, and a certain tissue specificity emerged by comparing tissues of the same and different histotypes. However, the overall methylation of both coding and 3' regions did not correlate with the levels of tissue-specific RNA expression. In heterozygous individuals, allelic methylation of the 3' region showed either perfectly balanced or slightly unbalanced methylation of the two alleles in normal tissues, while an allele-specific methylation was found in 5 out of 12 fresh tumor samples.

Activation of ras oncogenes and expression of tumor-specific transplantation antigens in methylcholanthrene-induced murine fibrosarcomas.

The DNA of 22 fibrosarcomas, newly induced in BALB/c mice by subcutaneous doses of 3-methylcholanthrene (3-MCA), was tested in NIH 3T3 transformation assay. Activation of K-ras and N-ras was found in 7 and 3 cases respectively. No H-ras activation was detected. Polymerase chain reaction and oligonucleotide hybridization performed on the DNA of the 22 sarcomas revealed 5 cases of K-ras mutation at codon 12, 3 at codon 13 and 1 at both codons. One case of K13 mutation was not detectable by transfection. Three cases of mutation at codon 61 of N-ras were also found, one of which was simultaneous with a K12 mutation. Tumor-specific transplantation antigens (TSTA) were assessed in the 22 original tumors. Altogether 16 sarcomas were immunogenic, with the highest frequency of TSTA+ tumors (10/11 and 5/6) in the groups given 1.0 and 0.1 mg of 3-MCA respectively, the lowest (1/5) in that with 0.01 mg of carcinogen; ras mutations occurred in the DNAs of 11 out of the 16 TSTA+ sarcomas, but none of the DNAs of the 6 TSTA- tumors showed ras mutation. The results suggest that 3-MCA-induced transformation of subcutaneous fibroblasts can involve mutations in codons 12, 13 or 61 of K- and N- but not H-ras gene and that such mutation is accompanied by the expression of TSTA.

trk and ret proto-oncogene expression in human neuroblastoma specimens: high frequency of trk expression in non-advanced stages.

Forty-three fresh tumor specimens of human neuroblastoma belonging to different clinical stages were analyzed for the expression of 2 proto-oncogenes: trk, which encodes a tyrosine-kinase receptor for nerve growth factor (NGF) and ret, another receptor-type tyrosine kinase whose ligand is unknown. The mRNA expression of the trk gene was detected in 67.4% of cases, with increased frequency in I, II and IVs Evans' stages and in patients with favorable prognosis according to the Shimada classification. Moreover, trk expression inversely correlated with Nmyc-gene amplification. ret mRNA was found in 36.8% of cases and equally distributed in the different stages. In addition, ngfR (low-affinity NGF receptor)-gene expression was present in 9 out of 25 cases. The simultaneous presence of mRNA related to both forms of the NGF receptor, while not proving the presence of a functional receptor, indicates the existence of a sub-set of neuroblastoma cells potentially responsive to NGF.