Robust Translation of γ-Secretase Modulator Pharmacology across Preclinical Species and Human Subjects.

The amyloid-ß peptide (Aß)-in particular, the 42-amino acid form, Aß1-42-is thought to play a key role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Thus, several therapeutic modalities aiming to inhibit Aß synthesis or increase the clearance of Aß have entered clinical trials, including γ-secretase inhibitors, anti-Aß antibodies, and amyloid-ß precursor protein cleaving enzyme inhibitors. A unique class of small molecules, γ-secretase modulators (GSMs), selectively reduce Aß1-42 production, and may also decrease Aß1-40 while simultaneously increasing one or more shorter Aß peptides, such as Aß1-38 and Aß1-37. GSMs are particularly attractive because they do not alter the total amount of Aß peptides produced by γ-secretase activity; they spare the processing of other γ-secretase substrates, such as Notch; and they do not cause accumulation of the potentially toxic processing intermediate, ß-C-terminal fragment. This report describes the translation of pharmacological activity across species for two novel GSMs, (S)-7-(4-fluorophenyl)-N2-(3-methoxy-4-(3-methyl-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)phenyl)-N4-methyl-6,7-dihydro-5H-cyclopenta[d]pyrimidine-2,4-diamine (BMS-932481) and (S,Z)-17-(4-chloro-2-fluorophenyl)-34-(3-methyl-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-16,17-dihydro-15H-4-oxa-2,9-diaza-1(2,4)-cyclopenta[d]pyrimidina-3(1,3)-benzenacyclononaphan-6-ene (BMS-986133). These GSMs are highly potent in vitro, exhibit dose- and time-dependent activity in vivo, and have consistent levels of pharmacological effect across rats, dogs, monkeys, and human subjects. In rats, the two GSMs exhibit similar pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics between the brain and cerebrospinal fluid. In all species, GSM treatment decreased Aß1-42 and Aß1-40 levels while increasing Aß1-38 and Aß1-37 by a corresponding amount. Thus, the GSM mechanism and central activity translate across preclinical species and humans, thereby validating this therapeutic modality for potential utility in AD.

Acute effects of atypical antipsychotics on whole-body insulin resistance in rats: implications for adverse metabolic effects.

Although it is generally accepted that atypical antipsychotics differ in their risk for diabetic side effects, the underlying pharmacological mechanisms are unknown. Studies on the mechanisms of antipsychotic-induced hyperglycemia or insulin resistance are often confounded by the concomitant weight gain and dyslipidemia, known diabetic risk factors. To investigate whether antipsychotics can acutely cause metabolic effects before any change in body composition, we studied the effects of four atypical antipsychotics on whole-body insulin resistance. Using the hyperinsulinemic, euglycemic clamp technique in conscious rats, insulin and somatostatin were infused at a constant rate to provide constant hyperinsulinemia and to suppress pancreatic insulin secretion. Glucose was infused at a variable rate, adjusted to maintain euglycemia. At steady state, animals were administered vehicle (V) or antipsychotic and the glucose infusion rate was monitored as an index of insulin sensitivity. Clamp experiments using radiotracers and studies on glucose uptake into isolated skeletal muscle were conducted to differentiate between effects on hepatic glucose production (HGP) and on peripheral glucose uptake. Olanzapine (OLAN) and clozapine (CLOZ) acutely impaired whole-body insulin sensitivity in a dose-dependent manner (P<0.001 vs V), whereas ziprasidone and risperidone had no effect. CLOZ also induced profound insulin resistance after dosing 10 mg/kg/day for 5 days (P<0.05 vs V). Tracer studies indicated that acute changes mainly reflect increased HGP, consistent with the lack of effect on glucose uptake. OLAN and CLOZ can thus rapidly induce marked insulin resistance, which could contribute to the hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis reported for patients receiving those therapies.

Synergistic inhibition of Aß production by combinations of γ-secretase modulators.

Alzheimer's disease is associated with the accumulation of amyloid-ß (Aß) in the brain. In particular, the 42-amino acid form, Aß1-42, is thought to play a key role in the disease. It is therefore of interest that diverse compounds, known as γ-secretase modulators (GSM), can selectively decrease Aß1-42 production without inhibiting the production of other forms of Aß. Here we describe the novel discovery of synergistic inhibition of Aß by certain combinations of GSMs. Cell cultures were treated with pairwise combinations of GSMs to determine how Aß peptide production was affected. Analysis of isobolograms and calculation of the combination index showed that BMS-869780 and GSM-2 were highly synergistic. Additional combinations of GSMs revealed that inhibition of Aß occurred only when one GSM was of the "acid GSM" structural class and the other was of the "non-acid GSM" class. A total of 15 representative acid/non-acid GSM combinations were shown to inhibit Aß production, whereas 10 pairwise combinations containing two acid GSMs or containing two non-acid GSMs did not inhibit Aß. We also discovered that lasalocid, a natural product, is a potent GSM. Lasalocid is unique in that it did not synergize with other GSMs. Synergism did not translate in vivo perhaps because of biochemical differences between the cell culture model and brain. These findings reinforce the pharmacological differences between different structural classes of GSMs, and may help to exploit the potential of γ-secretase as a drug target.

Dramatic elevation in urinary amino terminal titin fragment excretion quantified by immunoassay in Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients and in dystrophin deficient rodents.

Enzyme-linked and electrochemiluminescence immunoassays were developed for quantification of amino (N-) terminal fragments of the skeletal muscle protein titin (N-ter titin) and qualified for use in detection of urinary N-ter titin excretion. Urine from normal subjects contained a small but measurable level of N-ter titin (1.0 ± 0.4 ng/ml). A 365-fold increase (365.4 ± 65.0, P = 0.0001) in urinary N-ter titin excretion was seen in Duchene muscular dystrophy (DMD) patients. Urinary N-ter titin was also evaluated in dystrophin deficient rodent models. Mdx mice exhibited low urinary N-ter titin levels at 2 weeks of age followed by a robust and sustained elevation starting at 3 weeks of age, coincident with the development of systemic skeletal muscle damage in this model; fold elevation could not be determined because urinary N-ter titin was not detected in age-matched wild type mice. Levels of serum creatine kinase and serum skeletal muscle troponin I (TnI) were also low at 2 weeks, elevated at later time points and were significantly correlated with urinary N-ter titin excretion in mdx mice. Corticosteroid treatment of mdx mice resulted in improved exercise performance and lowering of both urinary N-ter titin and serum skeletal muscle TnI concentrations. Low urinary N-ter titin levels were detected in wild type rats (3.0 ± 0.6 ng/ml), while Dmdmdx rats exhibited a 556-fold increase (1652.5 ± 405.7 ng/ml, P = 0.002) (both at 5 months of age). These results suggest that urinary N-ter titin is present at low basal concentrations in normal urine and increases dramatically coincident with muscle damage produced by dystrophin deficiency. Urinary N-ter titin has potential as a facile, non-invasive and translational biomarker for DMD.

Identification and Preclinical Pharmacology of the γ-Secretase Modulator BMS-869780.

Alzheimer's disease is the most prevalent cause of dementia and is associated with accumulation of amyloid-ß peptide (Aß), particularly the 42-amino acid Aß1-42, in the brain. Aß1-42 levels can be decreased by γ-secretase modulators (GSM), which are small molecules that modulate γ-secretase, an enzyme essential for Aß production. BMS-869780 is a potent GSM that decreased Aß1-42 and Aß1-40 and increased Aß1-37 and Aß1-38, without inhibiting overall levels of Aß peptides or other APP processing intermediates. BMS-869780 also did not inhibit Notch processing by γ-secretase and lowered brain Aß1-42 without evidence of Notch-related side effects in rats. Human pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters were predicted through allometric scaling of PK in rat, dog, and monkey and were combined with the rat pharmacodynamic (PD) parameters to predict the relationship between BMS-869780 dose, exposure and Aß1-42 levels in human. Off-target and safety margins were then based on comparisons to the predicted exposure required for robust Aß1-42 lowering. Because of insufficient safety predictions and the relatively high predicted human daily dose of 700 mg, further evaluation of BMS-869780 as a potential clinical candidate was discontinued. Nevertheless, BMS-869780 demonstrates the potential of the GSM approach for robust lowering of brain Aß1-42 without Notch-related side effects.

Discovery of (S)-6-(3-cyclopentyl-2-(4-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazol-1-yl)propanamido)nicotinic acid as a hepatoselective glucokinase activator clinical candidate for treating type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Glucokinase is a key regulator of glucose homeostasis, and small molecule allosteric activators of this enzyme represent a promising opportunity for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Systemically acting glucokinase activators (liver and pancreas) have been reported to be efficacious but in many cases present hypoglycaemia risk due to activation of the enzyme at low glucose levels in the pancreas, leading to inappropriately excessive insulin secretion. It was therefore postulated that a liver selective activator may offer effective glycemic control with reduced hypoglycemia risk. Herein, we report structure-activity studies on a carboxylic acid containing series of glucokinase activators with preferential activity in hepatocytes versus pancreatic ß-cells. These activators were designed to have low passive permeability thereby minimizing distribution into extrahepatic tissues; concurrently, they were also optimized as substrates for active liver uptake via members of the organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) family. These studies lead to the identification of 19 as a potent glucokinase activator with a greater than 50-fold liver-to-pancreas ratio of tissue distribution in rodent and non-rodent species. In preclinical diabetic animals, 19 was found to robustly lower fasting and postprandial glucose with no hypoglycemia, leading to its selection as a clinical development candidate for treating type 2 diabetes.