Longitudinal Exploration of Cortical Brain Activity in Cognitive Fog: An EEG Study in Patients with and without Anosmia.

BACKGROUND: Long-Covid, characterized by persistent symptoms following acute Covid-19 infection, represents a complex challenge for the scientific community. Among the most common and debilitating manifestations, cognitive fog is a neurological disorder characterized by mental confusion and cognitive difficulties. In this study, we investigated the long-term effects of previous Covid-19 infection on cortical brain activity in patients experiencing cognitive fog symptoms in the medium and long term. METHODS: A total of 40 subjects (20 females and 20 males) aged between 45 and 70 years (mean age (M) = 59.78, standard deviation (SD) = 12.93) participated in this study. This sample included individuals with symptoms of cognitive fog, both with and without anosmia, and a control group comprised of healthy subjects. All electroencephalography (EEG) data were collected in two sessions, 1 month and 8 months after recovery from Covid-19, to measure the neurophysiological parameters of P300 and beta band rhythms. RESULTS: The results revealed significant differences in the neurophysiological parameters of P300 and beta band rhythms in subjects affected by cognitive fog, and these alterations persist even 8 months after recovery from Covid-19. Interestingly, no significant differences were observed between the participants with anosmia and without anosmia associated with cognitive fog. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide a significant contribution to understanding the long-term effects of Covid-19 on the brain and have important implications for future interventions aimed at managing and treating brain fog symptoms. The longitudinal assessment of cortical brain activity helps highlight the persistent impact of the virus on the neurological health of Long-Covid patients.

Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Potential P300-Related Events and Alpha and Beta EEG Band Rhythms in Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Parkinson's disease is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders. While a definitive cure for Parkinson's disease remains elusive, a range of treatments are available to slow its progression and counteract its symptoms. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) represents a non-invasive method to induce brain plasticity. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of two weeks of tDCS on the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) on the neurophysiological functioning of Parkinson's patients. METHODS: Thirty patients aged between 67 and 82 years with Parkinson's disease participated to the experiment. Fifteen underwent tDCS on the left DLPFC, while fifteen underwent sham tDCS. Neurophysiological functions were assessed before and after tDCS using electroencephalogram methods for alpha and beta band rhythms and P300 event-related potential latency. RESULTS: tDCS led to a reduction in the onset latency of the P300 response and an increase in the power spectrum of the alpha and beta band rhythms. CONCLUSIONS: This research enhances our understanding of the potential effects of tDCS in the context of Parkinson's disease treatment, as the reduction in P300 latency and the increase in alpha and beta bands are associated with improvements in cognitive aspects.

Dopamine- and Grape-Seed-Extract-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Interaction Studies between Particles and Differentiated SH-SY5Y Neuronal Cell Model of Parkinson's Disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder, primarily associated with dopaminergic neuron depletion in the Substantia Nigra. Current treatment focuses on compensating for dopamine (DA) deficiency, but the blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses challenges for effective drug delivery. Using differentiated SH-SY5Y cells, we investigated the co-administration of DA and the antioxidant Grape Seed Extract (GSE) to study the cytobiocompability, the cytoprotection against the neurotoxin Rotenone, and their antioxidant effects. For this purpose, two solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) formulations, DA-co-GSE-SLNs and GSE-ads-DA-SLNs, were synthesized. Such SLNs showed mean particle sizes in the range of 187-297 nm, zeta potential values in the range of -4.1--9.7 mV, and DA association efficiencies ranging from 35 to 82%, according to the formulation examined. The results showed that DA/GSE-SLNs did not alter cell viability and had a cytoprotective effect against Rotenone-induced toxicity and oxidative stress. In addition, this study also focused on the evaluation of Alpha-synuclein (aS) levels; SLNs showed the potential to modulate the Rotenone-mediated increase in aS levels. In conclusion, our study investigated the potential of SLNs as a delivery system for addressing PD, also representing a promising approach for enhanced delivery of pharmaceutical and antioxidant molecules across the BBB.

A Meta-Analysis of Endoscopic Stenting Versus Surgical Treatment for Malignant Gastric Outlet Obstruction.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Surgical gastrojejunostomy (GJJ) and endoscopic stenting (ES) are the two most available treatments for palliation of malignant gastric obstruction (MGOO). The aim of this study is to compare these two techniques regarding efficacy, safety, time of hospitalization and survival. METHODS: We performed a literature search from January 2010 to September 2020 to identify available randomized controlled studies and observational studies that compared ES and GJJ for the treatment of MGOO. RESULTS: A total of 17 studies were found. ES and GJJ showed similar technical and clinical success rate. ES was superior to obtain early oral re-feeding, shorter length of hospitalization and a lower incidence of complications than GJJ. Surgical palliation had a lower recurrence rate of obstructive symptoms and longer overall survival than ES. CONCLUSIONS: Both procedures have advantages and disadvantages. Probably we should not find the best palliation but the best approach based on the patient characteristics and tumor type.

Genomic Prediction of Resistance to Tan Spot, Spot Blotch and Septoria Nodorum Blotch in Synthetic Hexaploid Wheat.

Genomic prediction combines molecular and phenotypic data in a training population to predict the breeding values of individuals that have only been genotyped. The use of genomic information in breeding programs helps to increase the frequency of favorable alleles in the populations of interest. This study evaluated the performance of BLUP (Best Linear Unbiased Prediction) in predicting resistance to tan spot, spot blotch and Septoria nodorum blotch in synthetic hexaploid wheat. BLUP was implemented in single-trait and multi-trait models with three variations: (1) the pedigree relationship matrix (A-BLUP), (2) the genomic relationship matrix (G-BLUP), and (3) a combination of the two matrices (A+G BLUP). In all three diseases, the A-BLUP model had a lower performance, and the G-BLUP and A+G BLUP were statistically similar (p ≥ 0.05). The prediction accuracy with the single trait was statistically similar (p ≥ 0.05) to the multi-trait accuracy, possibly due to the low correlation of severity between the diseases.

ECM Composition Differentially Regulates Intracellular and Extracellular pH in Normal and Cancer Pancreatic Duct Epithelial Cells.

Intracellular pH (pHi) regulation is a challenge for the exocrine pancreas, where the luminal secretion of bicarbonate-rich fluid is accompanied by interstitial flows of acid. This acid-base transport requires a plethora of ion transporters, including bicarbonate transporters and the Na+/H+ exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1), which are dysregulated in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma (PDAC). PDAC progression is favored by a Collagen-I rich extracellular matrix (ECM) which exacerbates the physiological interstitial acidosis. In organotypic cultures of normal human pancreatic cells (HPDE), parenchymal cancer cells (CPCs) and cancer stem cells (CSCs) growing on matrices reproducing ECM changes during progression, we studied resting pHi, the pHi response to fluxes of NaHCO3 and acidosis and the role of NHE1 in pHi regulation. Our findings show that: (i) on the physiological ECM, HPDE cells have the most alkaline pHi, followed by CSCs and CPCs, while a Collagen I-rich ECM reverses the acid-base balance in cancer cells compared to normal cells; (ii) both resting pHi and pHi recovery from an acid load are reduced by extracellular NaHCO3, especially in HPDE cells on a normal ECM; (iii) cancer cell NHE1 activity is less affected by NaHCO3. We conclude that ECM composition and the fluctuations of pHe cooperate to predispose pHi homeostasis towards the presence of NaHCO3 gradients similar to that expected in the tumor.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Containing Dopamine and Grape Seed Extract: Freeze-Drying with Cryoprotection as a Formulation Strategy to Achieve Nasal Powders.

(1) Background: DA-Gelucire® 50/13-based solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) administering the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) and the antioxidant grape-seed-derived proanthocyanidins (grape seed extract, GSE) have been prepared by us in view of a possible application for Parkinson's disease (PD) treatment. To develop powders constituted by such SLNs for nasal administration, herein, two different agents, namely sucrose and methyl-ß-cyclodextrin (Me-ß-CD), were evaluated as cryoprotectants. (2) Methods: SLNs were prepared following the melt homogenization method, and their physicochemical features were investigated by Raman spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS). (3) Results: SLN size and zeta potential values changed according to the type of cryoprotectant and the morphological features investigated by SEM showed that the SLN samples after lyophilization appear as folded sheets with rough surfaces. On the other hand, the AFM visualization of the SLNs showed that their morphology consists of round-shaped particles before and after freeze-drying. XPS showed that when sucrose or Me-ß-CD were not detected on the surface (because they were not allocated on the surface or completely absent in the formulation), then a DA surfacing was observed. In vitro release studies in Simulated Nasal Fluid evidenced that DA release, but not the GSE one, occurred from all the cryoprotected formulations. Finally, sucrose increased the physical stability of SLNs better than Me-ß-CD, whereas RPMI 2650 cell viability was unaffected by SLN-sucrose and slightly reduced by SLN-Me-ß-CD. (4) Conclusions: Sucrose can be considered a promising excipient, eliciting cryoprotection of the investigated SLNs, leading to a powder nasal pharmaceutical dosage form suitable to be handled by PD patients.

Advancing theorizing about fast-and-slow thinking: The interplay between fast and slow processing.

We agree with the author's working model, but we suggest that (a) the classical distinction between fast and slow processes as separable processes can be softened, and (b) human performance might result from an interplay between fast and slow processing and these processes may be mediated by systems that evolve to satisfy the need for operation in a complex environment.

Eco-Anxiety: An Evolutionary Line from Psychology to Psychopathology.

According to the scientific literature, climate change, due to human activities, can damage the environment, with psycho-physical consequences for humans. The scientific literature has highlighted how severe weather events can cause fear, stress, concern for the future, and eco-anxiety. In light of this information, this study aims to explore the concept of eco-anxiety. However, climate change is still perceived as a secondary problem. It would also be worth investigating the real importance that people attach to environmental issues compared to other circumstances, such as wars or pandemics.

Cap-assisted EMR versus standard inject and cut EMR for treatment of large colonic laterally spreading tumors: a randomized multicenter study (with videos).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Piecemeal EMR of colorectal laterally spreading tumors (LSTs) >20 mm is effective. Experience is limited in the use of cap-assisted EMR (EMR-C) for resection of colonic lesions. We compared the efficacy and the safety of EMR-C for the removal of colonic LSTs ≥30 mm with "inject-and-cut" standard EMR (EMR-S). METHODS: In this randomized trial from 4 Italian centers, 138 patients were treated with EMR-C and 102 with EMR-S. The rates of residual lesions, percentage of recurrence after 12 months, and adverse events were evaluated. RESULTS: One hundred forty-three lesions were resected with EMR-C and 102 with EMR-S. Argon plasma coagulation (APC) was used as adjunctive treatment in 2.9% of EMR-Cs and in 22.5% of EMR-Ss (P < .001). The median time required was 20 minutes for EMR-C and 30 minutes for EMR-S (P < .001). Adverse events (AEs) occurred in 14 EMR-Cs (10.1%; 2 perforations, 11 bleeding events, and 1 stenosis) and in 22 EMR-Ss (21.6%; 1 perforation and 21 bleeding events) (P = .017). Intraprocedural AEs occurred in 3.6% of EMR-Cs and 16.7% of EMR-Ss (P = .001). Overall, residual lesions within 12 months were found to be significantly higher with EMR-S (32 patients, 31.4%) than with EMR-C (8 patients, 5.8%) (P < .001). Recurrence at follow-up colonoscopy in 12 months occurred in 7 EMR-Cs (5.1%) and 17 EMR-Ss (16.7%; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: The study demonstrated the feasibility and safety of EMR-C for removing large colorectal LSTs, with higher eradication rates, shorter resection time, and less use of APC when compared with EMR-S. (Clinical trial registration number: NCT03498664.).

A new designed self-expandable metal stent for the management of benign radiotherapy-induced hypopharyngeal or cervical esophageal strictures.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The management of patients with hypopharyngeal or cervical esophageal refractory benign strictures (RBS) after surgery and radiotherapy ± chemotherapy for laryngeal cancer is challenging. We aimed to assess the long-term efficacy and safety of a new designed fully covered SEMS in these patients. METHODS: We reviewed the results of a prospectively collected database of 40 consecutive patients with dysphagia due to RBS of the cervical esophagus or hypopharynx after surgery and radiotherapy with or without chemotherapy for laryngeal cancer, unfit for surgery, referred in two tertiary-care endoscopic centers from June 2005 to December 2018. All of them were treated with placement of a Niti-S Conio cervical stent. RESULTS: After placement of the first stent, dysphagia improved in all patients. The total number of adverse events was 35 out of a total of 299 procedures (11.7%): 25 (8.4%) stent migrations, 6 (2%) tumor overgrowth, 3 severe pain and 1 pharyngo-cutaneous fistula. Stents were periodically changed. In only one patient with a cervical esophageal stricture the stent was definitively removed after 7 sessions of stent placement because of stricture resolution. Patients were followed-up for a median of 11.6 months and a significant improvement in dysphagia was reported in all patients (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The use of this conformable, small caliber new designed Niti-S stent, exchanged periodically, appeared safe and permitted durable oral intake in patients with difficult-to-treat hypopharyngeal or cervical esophagus strictures, avoiding the need for periodic dilations.

The role of automatic and controlled processes in the positivity effect for older adults.

BACKGROUND: The positivity effect can be defined as an age-related attentional preference for positive information. The age differences are due to an attentional bias in which the young focused more intently on the negative stimuli, whereas the older attend to capture positive stimuli. There are two cognitive-emotional models that can explain the positivity effect: the socio-emotional selectivity theory (SST) and the dynamic integration theory (DIT). The SST states that in the older the positivity effect is related to controlled attentional processes, on the opposite, the DIT states that the positivity effect is related to automatic processes. AIMS: The main aim of the present study was to examine automatic and controlled attentional orienting of young and older adults in the positivity effect. METHODS: To reach these goals and to verify the generalization of the previous results, we used two experimental paradigms: the dot-probe task and the visual discrimination task with facial stimuli with positive (happy and surprise), negative (fair and angry) and neutral emotional expressions. 50 older and 35 young adults participated in this study. RESULTS: The older adults reacted faster to positive emotions than neutral or negative ones. They had similar RTs for the three types of emotions in both automatic and controlled attention. DISCUSSION: The findings are discussed in light of SST and DIT theories. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirms the positivity effect for the older subjects and support the idea that both automatic and controlled processes play a key role in this effect.

Mid-term trends and recent birth-cohort-dependent changes in incidence rates of cutaneous malignant melanoma in Italy.

In Oceania, North America and north-western Europe, after decades of increase, cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) rates began to stabilise or decline before 2000. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the reversal of the incidence trend is extending to southern Europe. To obtain a formal confirmation, this nationwide study from Italy investigated the incidence trends by birth cohort. Twenty-one local cancer registries covering a population of 15 814 455 provided incidence data for primary CMM registered between 1994 and 2013. Trends in age-standardised rates were analysed using joinpoint regression models and age-period-cohort models. Age-standardised incidence showed a consistent increase throughout the period (estimated annual percent change, 3.6 [95% confidence interval, 3.2-4.0] among men and 2.5 [2.0-3.1] among women). This pattern was confirmed by a sensitivity analysis with removal of low-risk populations of southern Italy. The rates, however, showed a stabilisation or a decrease in men and women aged below 35. Using the cohort of 1949-the median cohort with respect to the number of cases for both genders-as a reference, the incidence rate ratio increased for successive cohorts born until 1973 (women) and 1975 (men), and subsequently tended to decline. For the most recent cohorts in both genders, the risk of disease returned to the level of the cohort of 1949. The changes observed in the latest generations can be interpreted as the earliest manifestations of a birth-cohort-dependent incidence decrease. Our study adds to previous data indicating that the reversal of the long-term upward incidence trend of CMM is extending to southern Europe.

Bis(CBT)palladium(II) Derivatives (CBT = m-carborane-1-thiolate): Synthesis, Molecular Structure, and Physicochemical Properties of cis-[(bipy)Pd(CBT)2] and trans-[(py)2Pd(CBT)2].

The new synthesized PdII complex cis-[(bipy)Pd(CBT)2] (bipy = 2,2'-bipyridyl; CBT = m-carborane-1-thiolate anion), which is a potential BNCT (boron neutron capture therapy) agent and of structure elucidated by single-crystal X-ray work, has been studied by infrared (IR) and ultraviolet-visible light (UV-vis) spectra and its properties compared with those of the previously reported and also the structurally characterized analogue trans-[(py)2Pd(CBT)2]. This trans species, prepared via a direct method, was previously isolated from a pyridine solution, consequent to the occurring releasing of the external Pd(CBT)2 moieties of the porphyrazine macrocycle [{Pd(CBT)2}4LZn]·xH2O (L = tetrakis-2,3-[5,6-di(2-pyridyl)pyrazino]porphyrazinato anion), which is an active photosensitizer in photodynamic therapy (PDT) and a potential bimodal PDT/BNCT agent. The UV-vis spectral behavior of both cis and trans species in CHCl3 solution and in the gas phase has been examined in detail by density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) studies devoted to explain their distinct behavior observed in the region of 400-500 nm, as determined by the presence in the cis structure of a vicinal arrangement of the two CBT groups, an ensemble of results closely similar to those observed for the macrocycles [{Pd(CBT)2}4LM]·xH2O (M = MgII(H2O), ZnII, PdII). It has also been experimentally proved the tendency of the cis isomer in CHCl3/pyridine solution to be changed to the respective trans analogue, with conversion occurring in two steps, as interpreted by detailed DFT studies.

The role of a virtual avatar in attention and memory tasks in Rett syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Since subjects with Rett syndrome (RTT) focus their attention mainly on the faces of people with whom they interact, in this study the role of a human-like smart interactive agent (an avatar) in enhancing cognitive processes is examined. More in depth, this study aimed to understand if, and to what extent, the use of an avatar can improve attention and memory abilities in subjects with RTT. METHOD: Thirty-six subjects with RTT participated in the study. All participants performed over-selectivity and memory tasks, for a total of six trials. These trials were randomly presented in two different conditions: with and without virtual avatar. RESULTS: The results indicated that the participants improved their attention and memory abilities when they performed the tasks with the avatar. There were no improvements when they performed the tasks without the avatar. DISCUSSION: The results were discussed considering the relationship between motivation, attention and memory in RTT.

Dietary Habits and Risk of Esophagitis and Barrett's Esophagus: A Multicenter Italian Case-Control Study.

BACKGROUND: Barrett's esophagus (BE) and esophagitis share potentially modifiable risk factors such as obesity, smoking, and alcohol. The role of diet on BE and esophagitis is still debated. AIMS: The objective of this study was to examine the association between some dietary habits and the risk of BE and esophagitis in Italy. METHODS: A multicenter case-control study involving 1285 individuals was carried out in 12 areas. Patients with a new diagnosis of BE (320) or esophagitis (359) and a group of endoscopic controls (606) were included. Information on personal history and dietary habits was collected using a structured questionnaire. RESULTS: No clear monotonic significant dose-response relationship was found for most of the considered food items. Nevertheless, the most extreme consumption category of red meat, cold cuts, dairy products, and fried foods showed esophagitis risk excesses varying from 19 to 49%. A higher fat rich diet seemed to increase risk by 49% for BE and 94% for esophagitis. A downward tendency in esophagitis (- 27%) and BE risk (- 20%) was found associated with higher frequency of fresh fruit intake. In addition, a statistically significant twofold increased risk for both BE and esophagitis was found for subjects eating late evening snacks more than once every three days in comparison with the lowest intake category (no consumption). CONCLUSIONS: BE and esophagitis patients appeared to be more likely than controls to follow a diet rich in fats and poor in fruit and vegetables. Late evening snacks were found to be associated with both disorders.

Effects of short- and long-term neurostimulation (tDCS) on Alzheimer's disease patients: two randomized studies.

BACKGROUND: Non-invasive brain stimulation is an effective treatment for Alzheimer's disease. AIMS: The purpose of the two studies presented here is to compare the short- and long-term effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (t-DCS) on two samples of advanced AD patients. METHODS: In Study 1 26 patients were involved in a 10-day anodal vs. sham tDCS intervention stimulating the left frontotemporal cortex. A pre-post test assessment was run using two different neurocognitive tests and EEG data. The same protocol was used in Study 2, which involved 18 different patients who underwent the same intervention 10 days a month for 8 months. RESULTS: Results confirmed how the t-DCS intervention was effective both in the short- and the long-term to slow down the progression of AD on specific neurophysiological domains and, to a certain extent, on neurophysiological activity. Discussion tDCS appear to be effective and to affect differently neurocognitive and neurophysiological functions when comparing short and long-term outcomes. Conclusions Anodal-tDCS is an effective way to slow down the progression of Alzheimer's both in the short and long term. It can also affect the EEG patterns, but this requires a more protracted intervention.

Physical and mental health in the oldest-old: a mixed-methods study on a southern Italy sample.

BACKGROUND: The world's aging population has been constantly increasing in the last decades, causing the number oldest-old individuals to increase. AIMS: The present study aims to explore the different variables that contribute to the oldest-old wellbeing using a mixed-methods approach, including self-reports, standardized measures, and semi-structured interviews. METHODS: Thirty-nine oldest-old (90-103) from southern Italy were involved in the study, together with a control sample of younger individuals (51-71) from the same families. RESULTS: Data suggest that the oldest-old have better mental health, higher resilience, and more optimism than younger individuals. High resilience seems to be the key variable that promotes the overall wellbeing. DISCUSSION: The oldest-old tend to have better mental health, higher resilience and more optimism than younger individuals. CONCLUSIONS: Wellbeing in the oldest-old appeared to be promoted by the sense of belonging and life purpose.

Integrin-Linked Kinase Links Integrin Activation to Invadopodia Function and Invasion via the p(T567)-Ezrin/NHERF1/NHE1 Pathway.

Tumor cell invasion depends largely on degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) by protease-rich structures called invadopodia, whose formation and activity requires the convergence of signaling pathways engaged in cell adhesion, actin assembly, membrane regulation and ECM proteolysis. It is known that ß1-integrin stimulates invadopodia function through an invadopodial p(T567)-ezrin/NHERF1/NHE1 signal complex that regulates NHE1-driven invadopodia proteolytic activity and invasion. However, the link between ß1-integrin and this signaling complex is unknown. In this study, in metastatic breast (MDA-MB-231) and prostate (PC-3) cancer cells, we report that integrin-linked kinase (ILK) integrates ß1-integrin with this signaling complex to regulate invadopodia activity and invasion. Proximity ligation assay experiments demonstrate that, in invadopodia, ILK associates with ß1-integrin, NHE1 and the scaffold proteins p(T567)-ezrin and NHERF1. Activation of ß1-integrin increased both invasion and invadopodia activity, which were specifically blocked by inhibition of either NHE1 or ILK. We conclude that ILK integrates ß1-integrin with the ECM proteolytic/invasion signal module to induce NHE1-driven invadopodial ECM proteolysis and cell invasion.

Atypical Visual Scan Path Affects Remembering in ADHD.

OBJECTIVE: Several studies agree on the link between attention and eye movements during reading. It has been well established that attention and working memory (WM) interact. A question that could be addressed to better understand these relationships is: to what extent can an attention deficit affect eye movements and, consequently, remembering a word? The main aims of the present study were (1) to compare visual patterns of word stimuli between children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and typically developing (TD) children, during a visual task on word stimuli; (2) to examine the WM accuracy of the word stimuli; and (3) to compare the dynamic of visual scan path in both groups. METHOD: A total of 49 children with ADHD, age and sex matched with 32 TD children, were recruited. We used eye-tracking technology in which the Word Memory Test was implemented. To highlight the scan path of participants, two measures were used: the ordered direction of reading and the entropy index. RESULTS: ADHD groups showed a poorer WM than TD group. They did not follow a typical scan path across the words compared with TD children, but their visual scanning was discontinuous, uncoordinated, and chaotic. ADHD groups showed an index of entropy among the four categories of saccades higher than TD group. CONCLUSIONS: The findings were discussed in light of two directions: the relationship between atypical visual scan path and WM and the training implications related to the necessity of redirecting the dynamic of visual scan path in ADHD to improve WM.