The CaVß Subunit Protects the I-II Loop of the Voltage-gated Calcium Channel CaV2.2 from Proteasomal Degradation but Not Oligoubiquitination.

CaVß subunits interact with the voltage-gated calcium channel CaV2.2 on a site in the intracellular loop between domains I and II (the I-II loop). This interaction influences the biophysical properties of the channel and leads to an increase in its trafficking to the plasma membrane. We have shown previously that a mutant CaV2.2 channel that is unable to bind CaVß subunits (CaV2.2 W391A) was rapidly degraded (Waithe, D., Ferron, L., Page, K. M., Chaggar, K., and Dolphin, A. C. (2011) J. Biol. Chem. 286, 9598-9611). Here we show that, in the absence of CaVß subunits, a construct consisting of the I-II loop of CaV2.2 was directly ubiquitinated and degraded by the proteasome system. Ubiquitination could be prevented by mutation of all 12 lysine residues in the I-II loop to arginines. Including a palmitoylation motif at the N terminus of CaV2.2 I-II loop was insufficient to target it to the plasma membrane in the absence of CaVß subunits even when proteasomal degradation was inhibited with MG132 or ubiquitination was prevented by the lysine-to-arginine mutations. In the presence of CaVß subunit, the palmitoylated CaV2.2 I-II loop was protected from degradation, although oligoubiquitination could still occur, and was efficiently trafficked to the plasma membrane. We propose that targeting to the plasma membrane requires a conformational change in the I-II loop that is induced by binding of the CaVß subunit.

Direct gating of ATP-activated ion channels (P2X2 receptors) by lipophilic attachment at the outer end of the second transmembrane domain.

The ionic pore of the P2X receptor passes through the central axis of six transmembrane (TM) helices, two from each of three subunits. Val(48) and Ile(328) are at the outer end of TM1 and TM2, respectively. Homology models of the open and closed states of P2X2 indicate that pore opening is associated with a large lateral displacement of Ile(328). In addition, molecular dynamics simulations suggest that lipids enter the interstices between the outer ends of the TM domains. The P2X2(I328C) receptor was activated by propyl-methanethiosulfonate (MTS) as effectively as by ATP, but cysteine substitutions elsewhere in TM2 had no such effect. Other lipophilic MTS compounds (methyl, ethyl, and tert-butylethyl) had a similar effect but not polar MTS. The properties of the conducting pathway opened by covalent attachment of propyl-MTS were the same as those opened by ATP, with respect to unitary conductance, rectification, and permeability of N-methyl-d-glucamine. The ATP-binding residue Lys(69) was not required for the action of propyl-MTS, although propyl-MTS did not open P2X2(K308A/I328C) receptors. The propyl-MTS did not open P2X2 receptors in which the Val(48) side chain was removed (P2X2(V48G/I328C)). The results suggest that an interaction between Val(48) and Ile(328) stabilizes the closed channel and that this is broken by covalent attachment of a larger lipophilic moiety at the I328C receptors. Lipid intercalation between the separating TM domains during channel opening would be facilitated in P2X2(I328C) receptors with attached propyl-MTS. The results are consistent with the channel opening mechanism proposed on the basis of closed and open crystal structures and permit the refinement of the position of the TMs within the bilayer.

P2X7R activation drives distinct IL-1 responses in dendritic cells compared to macrophages.

The P2X(7)R is a functionally distinct member of the P2X family of non-selective cation channels associated with rapid activation of the inflammasome complex and signalling interleukin (IL)-1ß release in macrophages. The main focus of this investigation was to compare P2X(7)R-driven IL-1 production by primary murine bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDC) and macrophages (BMM). P2X(7)R expression in murine BMDC and BMM at both transcriptional (P2X(7)A variant) and protein levels was demonstrated. Priming with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and receptor activation with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) resulted in markedly enhanced IL-1 (α and ß) secretion in BMDC compared with BMM. In both cell types IL-1 production was profoundly inhibited with a P2X(7)R-specific inhibitor (A-740003) demonstrating that this release is predominantly a P2X(7)R-dependent process. These data also suggest that P2X(7)R and caspase-1 activation drive IL-1α release from BMDC. Both cell types expressed constitutively the gain-of-function P2X(7)K as well as the full P2X(7)A variant at equivalent levels. LPS priming reduced significantly levels of P2X(7)A but not P2X(7)K transcripts in both BMDC and BMM. P2X(7)R-induced pore formation, assessed by YO-PRO-1 dye uptake, was greater in BMDC, and these cells were protected from cell death. These data demonstrate that DC and macrophages display distinct patterns of cytokine regulation, particularly with respect to IL-1, as a consequence of cell-type specific differences in the physicochemical properties of the P2X(7)R. Understanding the cell-specific regulation of these cytokines is essential for manipulating such responses in health and disease.

Disruption of the Key Ca2+ Binding Site in the Selectivity Filter of Neuronal Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels Inhibits Channel Trafficking.

Voltage-gated calcium channels are exquisitely Ca2+ selective, conferred primarily by four conserved pore-loop glutamate residues contributing to the selectivity filter. There has been little previous work directly measuring whether the trafficking of calcium channels requires their ability to bind Ca2+ in the selectivity filter or to conduct Ca2+. Here, we examine trafficking of neuronal CaV2.1 and 2.2 channels with mutations in their selectivity filter and find reduced trafficking to the cell surface in cell lines. Furthermore, in hippocampal neurons, there is reduced trafficking to the somatic plasma membrane, into neurites, and to presynaptic terminals. However, the CaV2.2 selectivity filter mutants are still influenced by auxiliary α2δ subunits and, albeit to a reduced extent, by ß subunits, indicating the channels are not grossly misfolded. Our results indicate that Ca2+ binding in the pore of CaV2 channels may promote their correct trafficking, in combination with auxiliary subunits. Furthermore, physiological studies utilizing selectivity filter mutant CaV channels should be interpreted with caution.

LRP1 influences trafficking of N-type calcium channels via interaction with the auxiliary α2δ-1 subunit.

Voltage-gated Ca2+ (CaV) channels consist of a pore-forming α1 subunit, which determines the main functional and pharmacological attributes of the channel. The CaV1 and CaV2 channels are associated with auxiliary ß- and α2δ-subunits. The molecular mechanisms involved in α2δ subunit trafficking, and the effect of α2δ subunits on trafficking calcium channel complexes remain poorly understood. Here we show that α2δ-1 is a ligand for the Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Receptor-related Protein-1 (LRP1), a multifunctional receptor which mediates trafficking of cargoes. This interaction with LRP1 is direct, and is modulated by the LRP chaperone, Receptor-Associated Protein (RAP). LRP1 regulates α2δ binding to gabapentin, and influences calcium channel trafficking and function. Whereas LRP1 alone reduces α2δ-1 trafficking to the cell-surface, the LRP1/RAP combination enhances mature glycosylation, proteolytic processing and cell-surface expression of α2δ-1, and also increase plasma-membrane expression and function of CaV2.2 when co-expressed with α2δ-1. Furthermore RAP alone produced a small increase in cell-surface expression of CaV2.2, α2δ-1 and the associated calcium currents. It is likely to be interacting with an endogenous member of the LDL receptor family to have these effects. Our findings now provide a key insight and new tools to investigate the trafficking of calcium channel α2δ subunits.

Proteolytic maturation of α2δ represents a checkpoint for activation and neuronal trafficking of latent calcium channels.

The auxiliary α2δ subunits of voltage-gated calcium channels are extracellular membrane-associated proteins, which are post-translationally cleaved into disulfide-linked polypeptides α2 and δ. We now show, using α2δ constructs containing artificial cleavage sites, that this processing is an essential step permitting voltage-dependent activation of plasma membrane N-type (CaV2.2) calcium channels. Indeed, uncleaved α2δ inhibits native calcium currents in mammalian neurons. By inducing acute cell-surface proteolytic cleavage of α2δ, voltage-dependent activation of channels is promoted, independent from the trafficking role of α2δ. Uncleaved α2δ does not support trafficking of CaV2.2 channel complexes into neuronal processes, and inhibits Ca2+ entry into synaptic boutons, and we can reverse this by controlled intracellular proteolytic cleavage. We propose a model whereby uncleaved α2δ subunits maintain immature calcium channels in an inhibited state. Proteolytic processing of α2δ then permits voltage-dependent activation of the channels, acting as a checkpoint allowing trafficking only of mature calcium channel complexes into neuronal processes.