Universal Patterns in Color-Emotion Associations Are Further Shaped by Linguistic and Geographic Proximity.

Many of us "see red," "feel blue," or "turn green with envy." Are such color-emotion associations fundamental to our shared cognitive architecture, or are they cultural creations learned through our languages and traditions? To answer these questions, we tested emotional associations of colors in 4,598 participants from 30 nations speaking 22 native languages. Participants associated 20 emotion concepts with 12 color terms. Pattern-similarity analyses revealed universal color-emotion associations (average similarity coefficient r = .88). However, local differences were also apparent. A machine-learning algorithm revealed that nation predicted color-emotion associations above and beyond those observed universally. Similarity was greater when nations were linguistically or geographically close. This study highlights robust universal color-emotion associations, further modulated by linguistic and geographic factors. These results pose further theoretical and empirical questions about the affective properties of color and may inform practice in applied domains, such as well-being and design.

Simple lines and shapes are associated with, and communicate, distinct emotions.

We investigated whether lines and shapes that present face-like features would be associated with emotions. In Experiment 1, participants associated concave, convex, or straight lines with the words happy or sad. Participants found it easiest to associate the concave line with happy and the convex line with sad. In Experiment 2, participants rated (valence, pleasantness, liking, and tension) and categorised (valence and emotion words) two convex and concave lines that were paired with six distinct pairs of eyes. The presence of eyes affected participants' valence ratings and response latencies; more congruent eye-mouth matches produced more consistent ratings and faster reaction times. In Experiment 3, we examined whether dots that resembled eyes would be associated with emotional words. Participants found it easier to match certain sets of dots with specific emotions. These results suggest that facial gestures that are associated with specific emotions can be captured using relatively simple shapes and lines.

Drawing sounds: representing tones and chords spatially.

Research on the crossmodal correspondences has revealed that seemingly unrelated perceptual information can be matched across the senses in a manner that is consistent across individuals. An interesting extension of this line of research is to study how sensory information biases action. In the present study, we investigated whether different sounds (i.e. tones and piano chords) would bias participants' hand movements in a free movement task. Right-handed participants were instructed to move a computer mouse in order to represent three tones and two chords. They also had to rate each sound in terms of three visual analogue scales (slow-fast, unpleasant-pleasant, and weak-strong). The results demonstrate that tones and chords influence hand movements, with higher-(lower-)pitched sounds giving rise to a significant bias towards upper (lower) locations in space. These results are discussed in terms of the literature on forward models, embodied cognition, crossmodal correspondences, and mental imagery. Potential applications sports and rehabilitation are discussed briefly.

The hand grasps the center, while the eyes saccade to the top of novel objects.

In the present study, we investigated whether indenting the sides of novel objects (e.g., product packaging) would influence where people grasp, and hence focus their gaze, under the assumption that gaze precedes grasping. In Experiment 1, the participants grasped a selection of custom-made objects designed to resemble typical packaging forms with an indentation in the upper, middle, or lower part. In Experiment 2, eye movements were recorded while the participants viewed differently-sized (small, medium, and large) objects with the same three indentation positions tested in Experiment 1, together with a control object lacking any indentation. The results revealed that irrespective of the location of the indentation, the participants tended to grasp the mid-region of the object, with their index finger always positioned slightly above its midpoint. Importantly, the first visual fixation tended to fall in the cap region of the novel object. The participants also fixated for longer in this region. Furthermore, participants saccaded more often, as well saccading more rapidly when directing their gaze to the upper region of the objects that they were required to inspect visually. Taken together, these results therefore suggest that different spatial locations on target objects are of interest to our eyes and hands.

The sweetest thing: the influence of angularity, symmetry, and the number of elements on shape-valence and shape-taste matches.

A within-participants experiment was conducted in two countries (the UK and Colombia) in order to investigate the matching of shapes to taste words. Comparing the two countries allowed us to explore some of the cultural differences that have been reported thus far solely in terms of people's visual preferences. In particular, we addressed the question of whether properties other than angularity influence shape-valence and shape-taste matching (crossmodal correspondences). The participants in the present study repeatedly matched eight shapes, varying in terms of their angularity, symmetry, and number of elements to one of two words-pleasant or unpleasant and sweet or sour. Participants' choices, as well as the latency of their responses, and their hand movements, were evaluated. The participants were more likely to judge those shapes that were rounder, symmetrical, and those shapes that had fewer elements as both pleasant and sweet. Those shapes that were more angular, asymmetrical, and that had a greater number of elements, were more likely to be judged as both unpleasant and sour instead. The evidence presented here therefore suggests that aside from angularity and roundness, both symmetry/asymmetry and the number of elements present in a shape also influence valence and taste categorizations.

Searching for flavor labels in food products: the influence of color-flavor congruence and association strength.

Prior research provides robust support for the existence of a number of associations between colors and flavors. In the present study, we examined whether congruent (vs. incongruent) combinations of product packaging colors and flavor labels would facilitate visual search for products labeled with specific flavors. The two experiments reported here document a Stroop-like effect between flavor words and packaging colors. The participants were able to search for packaging flavor labels more rapidly when the color of the packaging was congruent with the flavor label (e.g., red/tomato) than when it was incongruent (e.g., yellow/tomato). In addition, when the packaging color was incongruent, those flavor labels that were more strongly associated with a specific color yielded slower reaction times and more errors (Stroop interference) than those that were less strongly tied to a specific color. Importantly, search efficiency was affected both by color/flavor congruence and association strength. Taken together, these results therefore highlight the role of color congruence and color-word association strength when it comes to searching for specific flavor labels.

The Butcher's Tongue Illusion.

We report two experiments, based on a novel variant of the Rubber Hand Illusion (RHI), in which tactile stimulation is referred to an artificial (out-of-body) tongue. In the experiments reported here the participant's tongue was stimulated while they looked at a mirrored dummy tongue. On average, the participants agreed with the statement that they felt as if they had been touched in the location where they saw the rubber tongue being touched (experiment 1), thus demonstrating visual capture. When the external tongue was illuminated with a laser pointer (experiment 2), a significant proportion of the participants reported feeling either tactile or thermal stimulation on their own tongue. These results therefore demonstrate that the multisensory integration of visual, tactile, and proprioceptive information that gives rise to the RHI can be extended to the tongue (a body part that is rarely seen directly).

Respuesta electrodérmica y expresiones faciales de niños que entablan un juego de ficción relacionado con comportamientos de agresión / Electrodermal Response and Facial Expressions of Children who Engage in Pretense Play Related with Aggressive Behaviors

En Colombia existe un alto porcentaje de niños y jóvenes que despliegan o son víctimas de conductas agresivas en el contexto escolar. Existe evidencia que muestra que estas conductas están asociadas con dificultades en la regulación emocional y en los procesos de teoría de la mente. Se llevaron a cabo seis estudios de caso a niños entre los 4 y 8 años de edad. A los participantes del estudio se les presentó un cuestionario en donde se planteaban situaciones conflictivas y buscaba fomentar el juego de ficción. Se evaluó la respuesta electrodérmica y las expresiones faciales durante la entrevista. Se presentó una mayor frecuencia de expresiones faciales y cambios en la respuesta electrodérmica cuando la agresión, en las situaciones conflictivas, era intencional y dirigida a un sujeto. Las emociones más frecuentes, registradas en la expresión facial, fueron rabia, tristeza y desprecio. Los resultados de este estudio, sugieren que las expresiones faciales y la respuesta electrodérmica pueden ser medidas interesantes para estudiar la regulación emocional y las conductas agresivas.

Colombia displays a high percentage of children and teenagers that deploy or are victims of aggressive behaviour in the school. There is evidence that shows that these behaviours are associated with difficulties during emotion regulation and in theory of mind. Six case studies were developed in children between 4 and 8 years of age. A questionnaire that involved conflict situations and that sought to promote pretense play was presented to participants. Facial expressions and electrodermic responses were evaluated during the interview. A higher frequency of facial expressions and changes in electrodermic response were recorded when the aggression, in the conflict situations, was intentional and directed towards a person. The most frequent facial expressions of emotion were anger, sadness, and contempt. The results of the present study suggest that facial expressions and electrodermic response could be interesting measures to study emotion regulation and aggressive behaviour.

El juego de ficción y la teoría de la mente en niños con dificultades sociales / Pretense play and theory of mind in children with social interaction difficulties

Este artículo presenta un estudio en el que se desarrolló un instrumento para determinar si niños con distintas dificultades en la interacción social logran realizar juegos de ficción en los que puedan atribuir una Teoría de la mente (ToM) al objeto, en especial, emociones e intenciones. Se llevaron a cabo cinco estudios de caso (individuos de sexo masculino de 11-13 años), diagnosticados con distintos trastornos psicológicos y en situaciones de vulnerabilidad. El instrumento consistió en una entrevista semi-estructurada y una muñeca con la que se buscaba facilitar el juego de ficción y la ToM. Los participantes presentaron dificultades en el juego de ficción, y requirieron ayuda para iniciarlo o para generar detalles sobre éste; en cambio, mostraron un lenguaje más fluido y relevante en tareas vinculadas con ToM. Esto no es consistente con la literatura, en la que el juego de ficción es precursor necesario de la ToM. Se sugiere indagar más sobre la relación entre ToM y juego de ficción, así como establecer si realmente existe una interdependencia y una línea cronológica del desarrollo.

Theory of mind (ToM) and pretense play have been topics of great interest to developmental psychology; nonetheless their relationship and interaction are still subjects of research. With this on mind, an instrument was developed with the purpose of determining if children with social interaction difficulties could generate ToM attributions to an object during pretense play, especially emotions and intentions. 5 case studies were conducted (male participants 11-13 years of age), diagnosed with various psychological disorders within a vulnerable social context. The instrument consisted of a semi-structured interview and a doll which had the intention of facilitating pretense play and ToM. The participants showed difficulties during pretense play tasks, requiring help to initiate play and generate a detailed explanation about the situation. In comparison, during ToM tasks their vocabulary was more fluid and relevant; which is not consistent with the literature where pretense play is a necessary precursor of ToM. We suggest that more research is needed to explain the relation between pretense play and ToM, and determine if there is an interdependency and chronological development of these cognitive abilities.