Implementation and Effectiveness of an Online Responsible Vendor Training Program for Recreational Marijuana Stores in Colorado, Oregon, and Washington State.

CONTEXT: Six US states have implemented retail sales of recreational marijuana. Training in responsible sales practices has been effective in the alcohol market. An online responsible marijuana vendor (RMV) training was produced and implemented with stores in a randomized trial. PROGRAM: An online RMV training was developed through meetings with state regulators and local law enforcement personnel, curriculum standards published by the Colorado Marijuana Enforcement Division in May 2015, interviews with recreational marijuana store personnel (n = 15), and usability testing of a prototype training with store personnel (n = 19) in Colorado and Washington State. The training contained 5 modules: state laws and regulations, ID checking, health effects of marijuana, customer service practices including recognizing intoxicated patrons, and rules of the trade. IMPLEMENTATION: A randomized controlled trial testing the training enrolled a random sample of state-licensed retail recreational marijuana stores (n = 225) in Colorado, Oregon, and Washington State. In total, 125 stores were randomly assigned to receive the RMV training. A total of 420 store employees completed the online training between June 2017 and February 2018 (43.5% female, 88.4% younger than 40 years, and 74.1% non-Hispanic white). EVALUATION: Responses to posttraining surveys showed that most trainees found the training user-friendly (78.4%), were satisfied (68.8%), and would recommend it to another employee (91.1%). The training improved trainees' ability to check IDs (pretraining mean = 3.91 [SD = 1.36], posttraining mean = 4.58 [SD = 0.66], t387,388 = 8.68, P < .001) and their confidence to use the state's inventory tracking system (pretraining mean = 2.52 [SD = 0.65], posttraining mean = 2.85 [SD = 0.39], t387, 388 = 10.89, P < .001) and spot intoxicated customers (pretraining mean = 2.79 [SD = 0.41], posttraining mean = 2.94 [SD = 0.25], t387,388 = 6.87, P < .001). DISCUSSION: Online RMV training was acceptable to retail recreational marijuana personnel and potentially improved responsible sales practices. Responsible vendor training has been successful under certain conditions in the alcohol market and should be considered for the recreational marijuana market.

A Mixed-Methods Approach Examining Illicit Prescription Stimulant Use: Findings From a Northern California University.

Preventing the illicit use of prescription stimulants, a particularly high-risk form of substance use, requires approaches that utilize theory-guided research. We examined this behavior within the context of a random sample of 554 undergraduate students attending a university in northern California. Approximately 17% of students self-reported engaging in this behavior during college; frequency of misuse per academic term ranged from less than once to 40 or more times. Although most misusers reported oral ingestion, a small proportion reported snorting and smoking the drug. The majority of misusers reported receiving the drug at no cost, and the primary source of the drug was friends. Misusers were motivated by both academic (e.g., to improve focus) and non-academic (e.g., to experiment) reasons. Our thematic analyses of an open-end question revealed that students abstaining from illicit use of prescription stimulants did so primarily for reasons related to health risks, ethics, and adherence regulations. Results from adjusted logistic regression analyses showed that correlates of the behavior were intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental in nature. We conclude that characteristics of misuse are a cause for concern, and correlates of the behavior are multifaceted. These findings, in addition to insights provided by students who choose not to engage in this behavior, suggest that a number of prevention approaches are plausible, such as a social norms campaign that simultaneously corrects exaggerated beliefs about prevalence while also illustrating why abstainers, in their own words, choose to abstain.

An applied test of the social learning theory of deviance to college alcohol use.

Several hypotheses about influences on college drinking derived from the social learning theory of deviance were tested and confirmed. The effect of ethnicity on alcohol use was completely mediated by differential association and differential reinforcement, whereas the effect of biological sex on alcohol use was partially mediated. Higher net positive reinforcements to costs for alcohol use predicted increased general use, more underage use, and more frequent binge drinking. Two unexpected finding were the negative relationship between negative expectations and negative experiences, and the substantive difference between nondrinkers and general drinkers compared with illegal or binge drinkers. The discussion considers implications for future campaigns based on Akers's deterrence theory.

Party Characteristics, Drinking Settings, and College Students' Risk of Intoxication: A Multi-Campus Study.

We examined party characteristics across different college drinking settings, associations between party characteristics and likelihood of drinking to intoxication, and the mediating role of perceived prevalence of intoxicated partygoers. Students (N = 6903) attending 14 public universities in California during the 2010 and 2011 fall semesters completed surveys on individual and party characteristics in six unique settings (e.g., residence hall). We used descriptive statistics to examine party characteristics by setting. We estimated multilevel logistic regression models to identify party characteristics associated with drinking to intoxication, and we used RMediation to determine significance of mediating effects. Individual and party characteristics varied by drinking context. Greater time at a party was associated with drinking to intoxication at five of six settings, while larger party size was significant only for outdoor settings. Enforcing the legal drinking age and refusing to serve intoxicated patrons were associated with lower likelihood of intoxication at Greek and off-campus parties. The presence of a keg was associated with drinking to intoxication at Greek, off-campus and outdoor parties; at bars, cover charges and drink promotions were positively associated with drinking to intoxication. In four of six settings, we found evidence of significant mediating effects through perceived prevalence of intoxicated partygoers. Findings highlight risk and protective characteristics of parties by drinking setting, and have prevention implications.

Long-Term Effects of a Multi-Component Community-Level Intervention to Reduce Single Vehicle Nighttime Crashes: Follow up Findings from a 24-Community Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVE: This follow up study examines whether a multi-component, high-visibility alcohol enforcement intervention implemented in 12 California cities had long-term effects on alcohol-related motor vehicle crashes beyond the time period of the original study. Previous results indicated a significant reduction in single vehicle nighttime (SVN) crashes among 15 to 30-year-olds in intervention cities relative to controls (Saltz et al., 2021). METHOD: A randomized trial was conducted with 24 randomly chosen California cities from 2012 to 2017 to evaluate a multi-component intervention to reduce excessive drinking and driving while impaired among adolescents and young adults. Twelve of the cities were randomly assigned to the intervention condition and implemented high-visibility alcohol enforcement operations and other components from April 2013 to March 2016. Multi-level negative binomial regression analyses were conducted with motor vehicle crash data from 2010 to 2021 to examine whether single vehicle nighttime (SVN) crashes among 15 to 30-year-olds decreased in intervention cities relative to controls after the multi-component intervention was implemented. Analyses controlled for community sociodemographic characteristics, the overall time trend, the COVID pandemic, and pre-intervention levels of SVN crashes and adjusted for correlation of repeated observations within cities over time. RESULTS: Regression analyses indicated a significantly lower level of monthly SVN crashes among 15-to-30-year-olds in intervention cities during post-intervention months through 2021 relative to control cities [Event Rate Ratio (95%CI) = 0.88 (0.79, 0.98), p<.05] when controlling for community sociodemographic characteristics, the overall time trend, COVID, and pre-intervention levels of SVN crashes. CONCLUSIONS: Study findings suggest that a multi-component, high-visibility alcohol enforcement intervention can have long-term effects on alcohol-related motor vehicle crashes and related injuries and fatalities among adolescent and young adult drivers.

Professional Development to Improve Responsible Beverage Service Training: Formative Research Results and Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Improved interventions are needed to reduce the rate of driving while intoxicated. Responsible beverage service (RBS) training has reduced service to intoxicated patrons in licensed premises in several studies. Its efficacy might be improved by increasing the proper application and continued use of RBS with a professional development program in the 3 to 5 years between the required RBS retraining. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to develop and evaluate a professional development component for an RBS training that aims to improve the effectiveness of the web-based training alone. METHODS: In a 2-phase project, we are creating a professional development component for alcohol servers after completing an RBS training. The first phase involved formative research on the feasibility, acceptability, and potential effectiveness of components. Semistructured interviews with owners and managers of licensed establishments and focus groups and a survey with alcohol servers in New Mexico and Washington State examined support for RBS and the need for ongoing professional development to support RBS. A prototype of a professional development component, WayToServe Plus, was produced for delivery in social media posts on advanced RBS skills, support from experienced servers, professionalism, and basic management training. The prototype was evaluated in a usability survey and a field pilot study with alcohol servers in California, New Mexico, and Washington State. The second phase of the project will include full production of the professional development component. It will be delivered in Facebook private groups over 12 months and evaluated with a sample of licensed premises (ie, bars and restaurants) in California, New Mexico, and Washington State (n=180) in a 2-group randomized field trial (WayToServe training only vs WayToServe training and WayToServe Plus). Licensed establishments will be assessed for refusal of sales to apparently intoxicated pseudopatrons at baseline and 12 months after the intervention commences. RESULTS: Although owners and managers (n=10) and alcohol servers (n=43) were favorable toward RBS, they endorsed the need for ongoing support for RBS for servers and identified topics of interest. A prototype with 50 posts was successfully created. Servers felt that it was highly usable and appropriate for themselves and the premises in the usability survey (n=20) and field pilot test (n=110), with 85% (17/20) and 78% (46/59), respectively, saying they would use it. Servers receiving the professional development component had higher self-efficacy (d=0.30) and response efficacy (d=0.38) for RBS compared with untreated controls. CONCLUSIONS: Owners, managers, and servers believed that an ongoing professional development component on RBS would benefit servers and licensed premises. Servers were interested in using such a program, a large majority engaged with the prototype, and servers receiving it improved on theoretic mediators of RBS. Thus, the professional development component may improve RBS training. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05779774; http://tinyurl.com/4mw6d2vk. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/49680.

Serving Alcohol to an "Obviously Intoxicated" Patron.

OBJECTIVE: Alcohol overservice at on-premises establishments is associated with driving while intoxicated, violence, and other harms. This study examined rates of alcohol overservice and service refusal among licensed on-premises establishments in northern California and characteristics of establishments, servers, and pseudo-patrons (PPs) that may be associated with service refusal. METHOD: In 2022, 300 licensed on-premises establishments were sampled in nine counties representing the San Francisco Bay Area. From July 2022 to January 2023, PP and observer teams visited each establishment, and PPs attempted to buy alcohol while displaying obvious signs of intoxication. The outcome of each purchase attempt; characteristics of establishments, servers, and PPs; and month, day, and time were recorded. Descriptive and regression analyses were conducted to address study objectives. RESULTS: Twenty-one percent of the establishments refused alcohol service to PPs. No establishment or server characteristics were significantly associated with service refusal in logistic regression analysis, nor were month, day, or time. However, service refusal was significantly more likely among female PPs (odds ratio = 3.71, 95% CI [1.67, 8.24], p < .01) and PPs displaying obvious or very obvious signs of intoxication (odds ratio = 9.28, 95% CI [1.99, 43.40], p < .01). There was no significant interaction effect of PP × Server Gender on the likelihood of service refusal. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that alcohol overservice to obviously intoxicated patrons remains common at licensed on-premises establishments. Mandatory responsible beverage service training of servers and enforcement of alcohol overservice laws are needed to reduce overservice and related harms.

Sales to Apparently Intoxicated Customers in Three States With Different Histories of Responsible Beverage Service Training.

OBJECTIVE: Most states prohibit sales of alcohol to customers who are apparently intoxicated, and many require training in responsible beverage service (RBS), with the aim of reducing driving while intoxicated (DWI) and other harms. Sales to apparently intoxicated patrons were assessed in onsite alcohol sales establishments and compared across three states. METHOD: A sample of 180 licensed onsite alcohol establishments was selected in California (n = 60), New Mexico (n = 60), and Washington State (n = 60). States had different RBS training histories, content, and procedures. Research confederates, trained to feign cues of intoxication, visited each establishment twice. The pseudo-intoxicated patron (PP) ordered an alcoholic beverage while displaying intoxication cues. Sale of alcohol was the primary outcome. RESULTS: At 179 establishments assessed, PPs were served alcohol during 56.5% of 356 visits (35.6% of establishments served and 22.6% did not serve at both visits). Alcohol sales were less frequent in New Mexico (47.9% of visits; odds ratio [OR] = 0.374, p = .008) and Washington State (49.6%; OR = 0.387, p = .012) than in California (72.0%). Servers less consistently refused service at both visits (6.8%) in California than New Mexico (33.9%) or Washington (27.1%), χ2(4, n = 177) = 16.72, p = .002. Alcohol sales were higher when intoxication cues were less obvious (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Overservice of alcohol to apparently intoxicated customers was frequent and likely elevated risk of DWI and other harms. The lower sales in New Mexico and Washington than California may show that a policy approach prohibiting sales to intoxicated customers combined with well-established RBS training can reduce overservice. Further efforts are needed to reduce overservice.

Effects of a Community-Level Intervention on Alcohol-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes in California Cities: A Randomized Trial.

INTRODUCTION: This trial assesses the effects of a community-level alcohol prevention intervention in California on alcohol-related motor vehicle crashes. STUDY DESIGN: The study is a group RCT with cities as the unit of assignment to condition and as the unit of analysis. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: A total of 24 California cities with populations between 50,000 and 450,000 were chosen at random and roughly matched into pairs before randomly assigning 12 each to the intervention and control conditions. INTERVENTION: The intervention, aimed at reducing excessive drinking among adolescents and young adults, included driving under the influence sobriety checkpoints, saturation patrols, and undercover operations to reduce service of alcohol to intoxicated patrons in bars, all including high visibility so the public would be aware of them. A measure of overall intervention intensity or dosage was created. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The outcome was a monthly percentage of all motor vehicle crashes that were single vehicle nighttime crashes for drivers aged 15-30 years. RESULTS: Multilevel analyses were conducted to examine intervention effects on alcohol-related crashes among drivers aged 15-30 years. Crash data were obtained in 2018 with data preparation and analysis conducted in 2019. Intent-to-treat analyses indicated a 17% reduction in the percentage of alcohol-involved crashes among drivers aged 15-30 years relative to controls, which translates to about 310 fewer crashes. Dosage was found to have a statistically significant effect on crashes among this age group, although not in the expected direction. CONCLUSIONS: Enhanced alcohol enforcement operations involving both community health and law enforcement agencies can help to reduce alcohol-impaired driving and related consequences among young people. Including measures of intervention dosage raises interesting questions about the understanding of the impact of the community intervention. Future studies should continue to further develop implementation strategies that may more effectively and efficiently reduce community alcohol-related harm.

Randomized Trial Testing an Online Responsible Vendor Training in Recreational Marijuana Stores in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: An online training in responsible marijuana vendor (RMV) practices was evaluated for effects on compliance with ID checking regulations. METHOD: A random sample of state-licensed recreational marijuana stores (n = 175) in Colorado and Washington State was selected in 2016-2017 and was enrolled in a randomized pretest-posttest controlled design. After baseline assessment, 75 stores were randomly assigned to a usual and customary training control group, stratified by state and region. The remaining stores (n = 100) were invited to use the RMV training. Stores were posttested at 3 and 9 months postrandomization. The primary outcome was refusal of sale measured with pseudo-underage patrons who attempted to enter stores and purchase cannabis without a state-approved ID. RESULTS: There was no difference by treatment group in refusal of pseudo-underage patron buyers (baseline: 92.5% intervention vs. 94.7% control; 3-month posttest 94.8% vs. 97.5%; 9-month posttest 97.5% vs. 97.1%, p = .286 [one tailed, adjusted for covariates]). The use of training increased refusals at store entry (trained: 65.9% baseline 82.5%, 3 months 79.9%, 9 months; not trained: 82.6%, 83.1%, 84.5%, p = .020 [two tailed, adjusted for covariates]). This difference was especially evident in Washington State (trained: 40.3%, 65.1%, 60.4%; not trained: 57.9%, 68.5%, 72.3%) but not in Colorado (trained: 95.2%, 101.0%, 101.4; not trained: 95.7%, 98.6%, 99.2%, p = .033 [two tailed, adjusted for covariates]). CONCLUSIONS: When used by store personnel, online RMV training increased refusal of buyers who appeared young and did not provide a state-approved ID. However, it did not improve refusal rates overall. Stores that had lower refusals at baseline and used the training may have benefited from it.

Communication between researchers and practitioners: findings from a qualitative evaluation of a large-scale college intervention.

Many community-based intervention studies experience problems with collaboration between researchers and practitioners. A preferred strategy appears to be to form community coalitions to carry out the proposed interventions in the community, but doing so risks shifting the focus from intervention objectives to coalition process. As a by-product, coalitions often lack understanding of the project goals and are not given specific instructions on how to implement the intervention. In contrast to conventional wisdom, the Safer California Universities study implemented a very directive approach in collaboration with local liaisons on the participating campuses, even though this approach is seen to risk cooperation or commitment from collaborators. This paper reports on the findings of a qualitative study based on interviews with campus liaisons of how the directive approach was perceived on the participating campuses. Findings indicate that the strategy was successful in terms of "getting things done" but could have been improved in terms of liaison involvement in setting objectives, and in finding the optimal level of specificity.

Sales to apparently alcohol-intoxicated customers and online responsible vendor training in recreational cannabis stores in a randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: In some U.S. states, laws prohibit sales of recreational marijuana to intoxicated customers to prevent associated harms. In alcohol markets, training in responsible sales practices is one intervention to help reduce such sales to intoxicated customers. Similar training may be beneficial in the recreational cannabis market. METHODS: An online responsible marijuana vendor (RMV) training was developed. Among its five modules, learning elements taught store personnel to recognize signs of alcohol impairment and intoxication, refuse sales, and understand the risks of driving under the influence of cannabis. A sample of n = 150 recreational cannabis stores in Colorado, Oregon, and Washington State, USA were enrolled in a randomized controlled trial, half of which were randomly assigned to use the RMV training. Stores were posttested using a pseudo-customer protocol in which confederate buyers feigned obvious signs of alcohol intoxication. RESULTS: Deterrence of sales to intoxicated customers does not seem to exist, regardless of whether the states' laws prohibit it. Only 16 of 146 stores (11.0%; 4 Oregon stores were eliminated that were not in business) refused sales. There was no difference in refusal rates between intervention (11.6% [3.9%]) and control stores (7.6% [3.1%], F = 0.71, p = 0.401 [1-tailed]) or between stores that used the RMV training (6.3% [4.0%]) or not (12.0% [5.7%], F = 0.91, p = 0.343 [2-tailed]). In 11 visits, store personnel commented on the buyers' behavior, or expressed concern/suspicion about buyers, but sold to them anyway. CONCLUSIONS: Training in responsible sales practices alone did not appear to reduce sales to apparently alcohol-intoxicated customers. Legal deterrence from making these sales may be insufficient or nonexistent for store management to support adherence to this responsible sales practice. Regulatory and policy actions may be needed to increase perceived risk with such sales (i.e., clear policy and swift, severe, and certain penalties) to achieve training's benefits.

Results of a Randomized Trial of Web-Based Retail Onsite Responsible Beverage Service Training: WayToServe.

OBJECTIVE: Research in Responsible Beverage Service (RBS) training indicates that such training can prevent over-service of alcohol and reduce drunk driving. However, reviews of the RBS literature suggest that the quality of training methods and the stability of implementation are important factors in determining RBS training effectiveness. Most RBS classes have been taught live, where the quality of instruction varies across instructors and classes, and the stability of the implementation of an RBS curriculum is variable. Web-based RBS training may carry important advantages by stabilizing instruction and implementation factors. Randomized trial results of a web-based onsite RBS training program (WayToServe® [WTS]) are reported here. It was hypothesized that servers trained by WTS would refuse alcohol service at significantly higher rates compared with Usual and Customary (UC) live training. METHOD: On-site alcohol-serving establishments in New Mexico communities were randomized to receive WTS training (n = 154) or the Usual and Customary live RBS training (n = 155). Premises were assessed at baseline, immediate post-training, 6-months post-training, and 1-year post-training intervals. Pseudo-intoxicated patron protocols were used to assess premise alcohol service during the early to mid-evening hours of 6:30 P.M. to 8:30 P.M., with the percentage of alcohol service refusals to apparently intoxicated pseudo-patrons as the primary outcome variable. RESULTS: Results indicate significantly higher refusal rates for WTS than for UC premises at the immediate (WTS = 68% vs. UC = 49%) and the 1-year post-training assessment points (WTS = 68% vs. UC = 58%) but not at the 6-month post-training assessment (WTS = 69% vs. UC = 64%). Differences in refusal rates based on pseudo-patron age were observed where younger pseudo-patrons were consistently refused more often than older pseudo-patrons. CONCLUSIONS: Effective RBS training can be delivered online, making it a potentially cost-effective way of reaching large alcohol server populations.

Relationships between college settings and student alcohol use before, during and after events: a multi-level study.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: We examined how alcohol risk is distributed based on college students' drinking before, during and after they go to certain settings. DESIGN AND METHODS: Students attending 14 California public universities (N=10,152) completed a web-based or mailed survey in the fall 2003 semester, which included questions about how many drinks they consumed before, during and after the last time they went to six settings/events: fraternity or sorority party, residence hall party, campus event (e.g. football game), off-campus party, bar/restaurant and outdoor setting (referent). Multi-level analyses were conducted in hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to examine relationships between type of setting and level of alcohol use before, during and after going to the setting, and possible age and gender differences in these relationships. Drinking episodes (N=24,207) were level 1 units, students were level 2 units and colleges were level 3 units. RESULTS: The highest drinking levels were observed during all settings/events except campus events, with the highest number of drinks being consumed at off-campus parties, followed by residence hall and fraternity/sorority parties. The number of drinks consumed before a fraternity/sorority party was higher than other settings/events. Age group and gender differences in relationships between type of setting/event and 'before,''during' and 'after' drinking levels also were observed. For example, going to a bar/restaurant (relative to an outdoor setting) was positively associated with 'during' drinks among students of legal drinking age while no relationship was observed for underage students. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Findings of this study indicate differences in the extent to which college settings are associated with student drinking levels before, during and after related events, and may have implications for intervention strategies targeting different types of settings.

Understanding the relationship between alcohol and sex: Latino and white college students and problematic sexual experiences while drinking.

OBJECTIVES: The authors examined whether the relationship between alcohol expectancies and sexual experiences while drinking differed between Latino and white college students. PARTICIPANTS: The authors considered students if they were white or Latino, unmarried, aged 18-25 years, reported any drinking, and had at least 1 sexual partner in the present school year. METHODS: The investigators collected surveys from a random sample of 13,868 undergraduate students from the 14 California public university campuses. They used tests of group differences and hierarchical multiple regressions. RESULTS: Social-facilitation alcohol expectancies were associated with the total number of different alcohol-related sexual experiences among Latino students. Neither social facilitation nor sexual-enhancement alcohol expectancies were differentially predictive of white or Latino students' frequency of sexual experiences. CONCLUSIONS: Additional research is necessary to determine whether concepts targeted by alcohol prevention programs operate in a differential manner for Latino students.

Compliance With Personal ID Regulations by Recreational Marijuana Stores in Two U.S. States.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to measure compliance with age and personal ID regulations by state-licensed recreational marijuana stores in two states. METHOD: Recreational marijuana stores (N = 175) in Colorado and Washington State were each visited twice by pseudo-buyer assessment teams in September 2016 to April 2017. The observer entered the store first, performed an environmental scan, and observed the buyer's purchase behavior. In both Washington State visits and in the first visit in Colorado, a young-adult buyer attempted to enter the store and purchase marijuana without showing a state-approved ID (i.e., valid driver's license). In the second Colorado visit, a buyer age 18-20 showed an underage driver's license and attempted to enter the store and purchase marijuana. RESULTS: All stores (100%) requested an ID. Stores refused buyers in 73.6% of visits at the entrance, 88.3% cumulative before the counter, and 92.6% by the time of a purchase attempt. Refusal was lower in Washington State (at entry, 53.1%; before the counter, 80.5%; and at purchase attempt, 86.6%) than in Colorado (at entry, 95.3%, p < .01; before the counter, 96.5%, p < .01; and at purchase attempt, 98.8%, p < .01), but it did not differ by buyer protocol (p > .05). CONCLUSIONS: Compliance with laws restricting marijuana sales to individuals 21 or older with a valid ID was high. Compliance in Washington State might be improved by having store personnel check IDs at the store entry. Although recreational stores may not be selling marijuana directly to youth, no information was collected on straw purchases.

Friday class and heavy alcohol use in a sample of New Zealand college students.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the association between scheduling at least one Friday class and the pattern and levels of alcohol use and heavy drinking in a sample of New Zealand college students. METHOD: Two waves of survey data were collected from 866 college students in New Zealand in the first and second semesters of the 2000 academic year. Descriptive and regression analyses were conducted to examine the associations between scheduling Friday class in the second semester, levels of alcohol use and heavy drinking in the past month, and alcohol use on different weeknights. We hypothesized that (1) heavier-drinking students would be less likely to schedule any Friday classes, (2) having at least one Friday class would be inversely related to concurrent alcohol use and heavy drinking when adjusting for potential confounders, and (3) having Friday class would be inversely related to alcohol use and heavy drinking on Thursdays and prior week- nights. RESULTS: Analysis results supported the hypothesis that heavier- drinking students would be less likely to schedule Friday classes but did not support the hypothesis that scheduling at least one Friday class would be inversely related to concurrent alcohol use and heavy drinking when adjusting for potential confounders. Having Friday class also was not associated with typical drinking on Thursday or Friday, but having Friday class was inversely associated with Thursday as the biggest drinking day when controlling for background variables. CONCLUSIONS: Findings of this study indicate that heavier-drinking students are less likely to schedule Friday classes. Scheduling at least one Friday class may reduce the likelihood of heavy drinking on Thursdays but may have no effect on the overall levels of alcohol use and heavy drinking among college students.

Pseudo-Underage Assessment of Compliance With Identification Regulations at Retail Marijuana Outlets in Colorado.

OBJECTIVE: Four states are creating a regulated industry for the retail sale of cannabis products. This pilot study assessed refusal rates of sales to underage-appearing individuals without valid identification (ID) at retail outlets in Colorado. METHOD: State-licensed retail marijuana outlets (n = 20) in Colorado were included in the sample. Pseudo-underage assessment teams of a buyer and an observer visited each retail outlet once between 11 A.M. and 5 P.M. on four weekdays in August 2015. The observer entered first, performed an unobtrusive environmental scan, and recorded the outcome of the purchase attempt. The buyer attempted to enter the outlet and purchase a cannabis product. If asked for an ID, they did not present one. Once inside, if the clerk offered to sell cannabis, the buyer declined, saying they had insufficient cash, and departed. RESULTS: Most outlets sold both retail and medical marijuana (75%). All outlets (100%) asked the buyer to show an ID. Only one outlet was willing to sell marijuana to the pseudo-underage buyer after the buyer did not provide an ID (95% refusal rate). All outlets (100%) had posted signs stating that an ID was required for entry; approximately half had signs that only individuals 21 years of age or older could enter (55%) and how to properly use marijuana edibles (50%). CONCLUSIONS: Compliance with laws restricting marijuana sales to individuals age 21 years or older with a valid ID was extremely high and possibly higher than compliance with restrictions on alcohol sales. The retail market at present may not be a direct source of marijuana for underage individuals, but future research should investigate indirect sales.

Sexual-orientation differences in drinking patterns and use of drinking contexts among college students.

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests there are important sexual-orientation differences in alcohol consumption, particularly among women. Little is known about where gay/lesbian and bisexual college students drink or differences in drinking patterns derived from graduated frequency measures between heterosexual, gay/lesbian, and bisexual students. The goal of this analysis was to examine patterns of alcohol consumption-including drinking prevalence, quantity, frequency, and contexts of use-by sexual orientation. METHODS: Data on sexual identity, gender, drinking behaviors, and drinking contexts were examined from repeated cross-sectional samples of undergraduate students attending 14 public California universities from 2003-2011 (n=58,903). Multivariable statistical techniques were employed to examine sexual-orientation differences stratified by gender. RESULTS: Gay males, lesbians, and bisexual females were significantly more likely to report drinking alcohol in the current semester than their same-gender heterosexual peers (relative risks ranged from 1.07 to 1.10, p-values <0.01). Among current drinkers, bisexual females consumed 7 or more drinks and lesbians consumed 10 or more drinks on significantly more days than heterosexual females. On the other hand, gay male drinkers consumed 8 or more drinks on significantly fewer days than heterosexual male drinkers. Compared to their same-gender heterosexual peers: lesbian/gay and bisexual students drank less frequently at Greek parties (incidence rate ratios [IRRs] ranged from 0.52 to 0.73, p-values <0.01); lesbians (IRR=0.84, p=0.043) and bisexual males (IRR=0.82, p=0.009) drank less frequently at off-campus parties; and gay males drank more frequently outdoors (IRR=1.63, p<0.001) and at bars/restaurants (IRR=1.21, p=0.013). CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol prevention programs and future research should consider sexual-orientation differences in drinking patterns and use of drinking contexts.

Drinking to extremes: theoretical and empiricalanalyses of peak drinking levels among college students.

OBJECTIVE: Heavy drinking among college students continues to be a substantial problem on campuses across the United States. Attempts to predict these drinking events have been restricted to assessments of the correlates of heavy drinking (measured at 4 or 5 drinks) and have not examined the peak drinking levels that can be fatal to students. This article presents a theoretical analysis of college drinking patterns that provides a basis for estimating peak drinking levels and predicts future risks related to peak drinking events. METHOD: Survey data were collected on sociodemographics and drinking patterns of 2,102 college students from two college campuses in California. A mathematical model of drinking patterns was used to characterize the stochastic distribution of drinking events among 1,273 students who drank five or more times and consumed more than one drink on some occasion since the beginning of the school year. An application of extreme value theory enabled the estimation of peak drinking levels for every college drinker. These estimates were related to self-reported maximum drinking levels and sociodemographic characteristics of respondents. RESULTS: Among these drinkers, the distribution of self-reported maximum drinking levels ranged from 2 to 43 drinks per occasion. Estimated peak drinking levels ranged from 3 to 49. Maximum drinking levels were well characterized by peak drinking estimates (R2 = 0.503). Variations in peak drinking levels were large and specifically related to particular sociodemographic groups (i.e., white male freshmen). CONCLUSIONS: The theoretical model of peak drinking events effectively characterizes maximum drinking levels among college students. High levels of peak drinking are to be expected among specific sociodemographic subgroups. These risks can be assessed on an individual basis. At the population level, risks for harm related to peak drinking events are predictable.