Structural basis for inhibition of a voltage-gated Ca2+ channel by Ca2+ antagonist drugs.

Ca2+ antagonist drugs are widely used in therapy of cardiovascular disorders. Three chemical classes of drugs bind to three separate, but allosterically interacting, receptor sites on CaV1.2 channels, the most prominent voltage-gated Ca2+ (CaV) channel type in myocytes in cardiac and vascular smooth muscle. The 1,4-dihydropyridines are used primarily for treatment of hypertension and angina pectoris and are thought to act as allosteric modulators of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel activation, whereas phenylalkylamines and benzothiazepines are used primarily for treatment of cardiac arrhythmias and are thought to physically block the pore. The structural basis for the different binding, action, and therapeutic uses of these drugs remains unknown. Here we present crystallographic and functional analyses of drug binding to the bacterial homotetrameric model CaV channel CaVAb, which is inhibited by dihydropyridines and phenylalkylamines with nanomolar affinity in a state-dependent manner. The binding site for amlodipine and other dihydropyridines is located on the external, lipid-facing surface of the pore module, positioned at the interface of two subunits. Dihydropyridine binding allosterically induces an asymmetric conformation of the selectivity filter, in which partially dehydrated Ca2+ interacts directly with one subunit and blocks the pore. In contrast, the phenylalkylamine Br-verapamil binds in the central cavity of the pore on the intracellular side of the selectivity filter, physically blocking the ion-conducting pathway. Structure-based mutations of key amino-acid residues confirm drug binding at both sites. Our results define the structural basis for binding of dihydropyridines and phenylalkylamines at their distinct receptor sites on CaV channels and offer key insights into their fundamental mechanisms of action and differential therapeutic uses in cardiovascular diseases.

Structural basis for Ca2+ selectivity of a voltage-gated calcium channel.

Voltage-gated calcium (CaV) channels catalyse rapid, highly selective influx of Ca(2+) into cells despite a 70-fold higher extracellular concentration of Na(+). How CaV channels solve this fundamental biophysical problem remains unclear. Here we report physiological and crystallographic analyses of a calcium selectivity filter constructed in the homotetrameric bacterial NaV channel NaVAb. Our results reveal interactions of hydrated Ca(2+) with two high-affinity Ca(2+)-binding sites followed by a third lower-affinity site that would coordinate Ca(2+) as it moves inward. At the selectivity filter entry, Site 1 is formed by four carboxyl side chains, which have a critical role in determining Ca(2+) selectivity. Four carboxyls plus four backbone carbonyls form Site 2, which is targeted by the blocking cations Cd(2+) and Mn(2+), with single occupancy. The lower-affinity Site 3 is formed by four backbone carbonyls alone, which mediate exit into the central cavity. This pore architecture suggests a conduction pathway involving transitions between two main states with one or two hydrated Ca(2+) ions bound in the selectivity filter and supports a 'knock-off' mechanism of ion permeation through a stepwise-binding process. The multi-ion selectivity filter of our CaVAb model establishes a structural framework for understanding the mechanisms of ion selectivity and conductance by vertebrate CaV channels.

Calcium sensor regulation of the CaV2.1 Ca2+ channel contributes to long-term potentiation and spatial learning.

Many forms of short-term synaptic plasticity rely on regulation of presynaptic voltage-gated Ca2+ type 2.1 (CaV2.1) channels. However, the contribution of regulation of CaV2.1 channels to other forms of neuroplasticity and to learning and memory are not known. Here we have studied mice with a mutation (IM-AA) that disrupts regulation of CaV2.1 channels by calmodulin and related calcium sensor proteins. Surprisingly, we find that long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic transmission at the Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapse in the hippocampus is substantially weakened, even though this form of synaptic plasticity is thought to be primarily generated postsynaptically. LTP in response to θ-burst stimulation and to 100-Hz tetanic stimulation is much reduced. However, a normal level of LTP can be generated by repetitive 100-Hz stimulation or by depolarization of the postsynaptic cell to prevent block of NMDA-specific glutamate receptors by Mg2+ The ratio of postsynaptic responses of NMDA-specific glutamate receptors to those of AMPA-specific glutamate receptors is decreased, but the postsynaptic current from activation of NMDA-specific glutamate receptors is progressively increased during trains of stimuli and exceeds WT by the end of 1-s trains. Strikingly, these impairments in long-term synaptic plasticity and the previously documented impairments in short-term synaptic plasticity in IM-AA mice are associated with pronounced deficits in spatial learning and memory in context-dependent fear conditioning and in the Barnes circular maze. Thus, regulation of CaV2.1 channels by calcium sensor proteins is required for normal short-term synaptic plasticity, LTP, and spatial learning and memory in mice.

Calcium sensor regulation of the CaV2.1 Ca2+ channel contributes to short-term synaptic plasticity in hippocampal neurons.

Short-term synaptic plasticity is induced by calcium (Ca(2+)) accumulating in presynaptic nerve terminals during repetitive action potentials. Regulation of voltage-gated CaV2.1 Ca(2+) channels by Ca(2+) sensor proteins induces facilitation of Ca(2+) currents and synaptic facilitation in cultured neurons expressing exogenous CaV2.1 channels. However, it is unknown whether this mechanism contributes to facilitation in native synapses. We introduced the IM-AA mutation into the IQ-like motif (IM) of the Ca(2+) sensor binding site. This mutation does not alter voltage dependence or kinetics of CaV2.1 currents, or frequency or amplitude of spontaneous miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs); however, synaptic facilitation is completely blocked in excitatory glutamatergic synapses in hippocampal autaptic cultures. In acutely prepared hippocampal slices, frequency and amplitude of mEPSCs and amplitudes of evoked EPSCs are unaltered. In contrast, short-term synaptic facilitation in response to paired stimuli is reduced by ∼ 50%. In the presence of EGTA-AM to prevent global increases in free Ca(2+), the IM-AA mutation completely blocks short-term synaptic facilitation, indicating that synaptic facilitation by brief, local increases in Ca(2+) is dependent upon regulation of CaV2.1 channels by Ca(2+) sensor proteins. In response to trains of action potentials, synaptic facilitation is reduced in IM-AA synapses in initial stimuli, consistent with results of paired-pulse experiments; however, synaptic depression is also delayed, resulting in sustained increases in amplitudes of later EPSCs during trains of 10 stimuli at 10-20 Hz. Evidently, regulation of CaV2.1 channels by CaS proteins is required for normal short-term plasticity and normal encoding of information in native hippocampal synapses.

Altered short-term synaptic plasticity and reduced muscle strength in mice with impaired regulation of presynaptic CaV2.1 Ca2+ channels.

Facilitation and inactivation of P/Q-type calcium (Ca(2+)) currents through the regulation of voltage-gated Ca(2+) (CaV) 2.1 channels by Ca(2+) sensor (CaS) proteins contributes to the facilitation and rapid depression of synaptic transmission in cultured neurons that transiently express CaV2.1 channels. To examine the modulation of endogenous CaV2.1 channels by CaS proteins in native synapses, we introduced a mutation (IM-AA) into the CaS protein-binding site in the C-terminal domain of CaV2.1 channels in mice, and tested synaptic facilitation and depression in neuromuscular junction synapses that use exclusively CaV2.1 channels for Ca(2+) entry that triggers synaptic transmission. Even though basal synaptic transmission was unaltered in the neuromuscular synapses in IM-AA mice, we found reduced short-term facilitation in response to paired stimuli at short interstimulus intervals in IM-AA synapses. In response to trains of action potentials, we found increased facilitation at lower frequencies (10-30 Hz) in IM-AA synapses accompanied by slowed synaptic depression, whereas synaptic facilitation was reduced at high stimulus frequencies (50-100 Hz) that would induce strong muscle contraction. As a consequence of altered regulation of CaV2.1 channels, the hindlimb tibialis anterior muscle in IM-AA mice exhibited reduced peak force in response to 50 Hz stimulation and increased muscle fatigue. The IM-AA mice also had impaired motor control, exercise capacity, and grip strength. Taken together, our results indicate that regulation of CaV2.1 channels by CaS proteins is essential for normal synaptic plasticity at the neuromuscular junction and for muscle strength, endurance, and motor coordination in mice in vivo.

Crystal structure of a voltage-gated sodium channel in two potentially inactivated states.

In excitable cells, voltage-gated sodium (Na(V)) channels activate to initiate action potentials and then undergo fast and slow inactivation processes that terminate their ionic conductance. Inactivation is a hallmark of Na(V) channel function and is critical for control of membrane excitability, but the structural basis for this process has remained elusive. Here we report crystallographic snapshots of the wild-type Na(V)Ab channel from Arcobacter butzleri captured in two potentially inactivated states at 3.2 Å resolution. Compared to previous structures of Na(V)Ab channels with cysteine mutations in the pore-lining S6 helices (ref. 4), the S6 helices and the intracellular activation gate have undergone significant rearrangements: one pair of S6 helices has collapsed towards the central pore axis and the other S6 pair has moved outward to produce a striking dimer-of-dimers configuration. An increase in global structural asymmetry is observed throughout our wild-type Na(V)Ab models, reshaping the ion selectivity filter at the extracellular end of the pore, the central cavity and its residues that are analogous to the mammalian drug receptor site, and the lateral pore fenestrations. The voltage-sensing domains have also shifted around the perimeter of the pore module in wild-type Na(V)Ab, compared to the mutant channel, and local structural changes identify a conserved interaction network that connects distant molecular determinants involved in Na(V) channel gating and inactivation. These potential inactivated-state structures provide new insights into Na(V) channel gating and novel avenues to drug development and therapy for a range of debilitating Na(V) channelopathies.

Autistic-like behaviour in Scn1a+/- mice and rescue by enhanced GABA-mediated neurotransmission.

Haploinsufficiency of the SCN1A gene encoding voltage-gated sodium channel Na(V)1.1 causes Dravet's syndrome, a childhood neuropsychiatric disorder including recurrent intractable seizures, cognitive deficit and autism-spectrum behaviours. The neural mechanisms responsible for cognitive deficit and autism-spectrum behaviours in Dravet's syndrome are poorly understood. Here we report that mice with Scn1a haploinsufficiency exhibit hyperactivity, stereotyped behaviours, social interaction deficits and impaired context-dependent spatial memory. Olfactory sensitivity is retained, but novel food odours and social odours are aversive to Scn1a(+/-) mice. GABAergic neurotransmission is specifically impaired by this mutation, and selective deletion of Na(V)1.1 channels in forebrain interneurons is sufficient to cause these behavioural and cognitive impairments. Remarkably, treatment with low-dose clonazepam, a positive allosteric modulator of GABA(A) receptors, completely rescued the abnormal social behaviours and deficits in fear memory in the mouse model of Dravet's syndrome, demonstrating that they are caused by impaired GABAergic neurotransmission and not by neuronal damage from recurrent seizures. These results demonstrate a critical role for Na(V)1.1 channels in neuropsychiatric functions and provide a potential therapeutic strategy for cognitive deficit and autism-spectrum behaviours in Dravet's syndrome.

The crystal structure of a voltage-gated sodium channel.

Voltage-gated sodium (Na(V)) channels initiate electrical signalling in excitable cells and are the molecular targets for drugs and disease mutations, but the structural basis for their voltage-dependent activation, ion selectivity and drug block is unknown. Here we report the crystal structure of a voltage-gated Na(+) channel from Arcobacter butzleri (NavAb) captured in a closed-pore conformation with four activated voltage sensors at 2.7 Šresolution. The arginine gating charges make multiple hydrophilic interactions within the voltage sensor, including unanticipated hydrogen bonds to the protein backbone. Comparisons to previous open-pore potassium channel structures indicate that the voltage-sensor domains and the S4-S5 linkers dilate the central pore by pivoting together around a hinge at the base of the pore module. The NavAb selectivity filter is short, ∼4.6 Šwide, and water filled, with four acidic side chains surrounding the narrowest part of the ion conduction pathway. This unique structure presents a high-field-strength anionic coordination site, which confers Na(+) selectivity through partial dehydration via direct interaction with glutamate side chains. Fenestrations in the sides of the pore module are unexpectedly penetrated by fatty acyl chains that extend into the central cavity, and these portals are large enough for the entry of small, hydrophobic pore-blocking drugs. This structure provides the template for understanding electrical signalling in excitable cells and the actions of drugs used for pain, epilepsy and cardiac arrhythmia at the atomic level.

Basal and ß-adrenergic regulation of the cardiac calcium channel CaV1.2 requires phosphorylation of serine 1700.

L-type calcium (Ca(2+)) currents conducted by voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel CaV1.2 initiate excitation-contraction coupling in cardiomyocytes. Upon activation of ß-adrenergic receptors, phosphorylation of CaV1.2 channels by cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) increases channel activity, thereby allowing more Ca(2+) entry into the cell, which leads to more forceful contraction. In vitro reconstitution studies and in vivo proteomics analysis have revealed that Ser-1700 is a key site of phosphorylation mediating this effect, but the functional role of this amino acid residue in regulation in vivo has remained uncertain. Here we have studied the regulation of calcium current and cell contraction of cardiomyocytes in vitro and cardiac function and homeostasis in vivo in a mouse line expressing the mutation Ser-1700-Ala in the CaV1.2 channel. We found that preventing phosphorylation at this site decreased the basal L-type CaV1.2 current in both neonatal and adult cardiomyocytes. In addition, the incremental increase elicited by isoproterenol was abolished in neonatal cardiomyocytes and was substantially reduced in young adult myocytes. In contrast, cellular contractility was only moderately reduced compared with wild type, suggesting a greater reserve of contractile function and/or recruitment of compensatory mechanisms. Mutant mice develop cardiac hypertrophy by the age of 3-4 mo, and maximal stress-induced exercise tolerance is reduced, indicating impaired physiological regulation in the fight-or-flight response. Our results demonstrate that phosphorylation at Ser-1700 alone is essential to maintain basal Ca(2+) current and regulation by ß-adrenergic activation. As a consequence, blocking PKA phosphorylation at this site impairs cardiovascular physiology in vivo, leading to reduced exercise capacity in the fight-or-flight response and development of cardiac hypertrophy.

Impaired excitability of somatostatin- and parvalbumin-expressing cortical interneurons in a mouse model of Dravet syndrome.

Haploinsufficiency of the voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.1 causes Dravet syndrome, an intractable developmental epilepsy syndrome with seizure onset in the first year of life. Specific heterozygous deletion of NaV1.1 in forebrain GABAergic-inhibitory neurons is sufficient to cause all the manifestations of Dravet syndrome in mice, but the physiological roles of specific subtypes of GABAergic interneurons in the cerebral cortex in this disease are unknown. Voltage-clamp studies of dissociated interneurons from cerebral cortex did not detect a significant effect of the Dravet syndrome mutation on sodium currents in cell bodies. However, current-clamp recordings of intact interneurons in layer V of neocortical slices from mice with haploinsufficiency in the gene encoding the NaV1.1 sodium channel, Scn1a, revealed substantial reduction of excitability in fast-spiking, parvalbumin-expressing interneurons and somatostatin-expressing interneurons. The threshold and rheobase for action potential generation were increased, the frequency of action potentials within trains was decreased, and action-potential firing within trains failed more frequently. Furthermore, the deficit in excitability of somatostatin-expressing interneurons caused significant reduction in frequency-dependent disynaptic inhibition between neighboring layer V pyramidal neurons mediated by somatostatin-expressing Martinotti cells, which would lead to substantial disinhibition of the output of cortical circuits. In contrast to these deficits in interneurons, pyramidal cells showed no differences in excitability. These results reveal that the two major subtypes of interneurons in layer V of the neocortex, parvalbumin-expressing and somatostatin-expressing, both have impaired excitability, resulting in disinhibition of the cortical network. These major functional deficits are likely to contribute synergistically to the pathophysiology of Dravet syndrome.

Dissecting the phenotypes of Dravet syndrome by gene deletion.

Neurological and psychiatric syndromes often have multiple disease traits, yet it is unknown how such multi-faceted deficits arise from single mutations. Haploinsufficiency of the voltage-gated sodium channel Nav1.1 causes Dravet syndrome, an intractable childhood-onset epilepsy with hyperactivity, cognitive deficit, autistic-like behaviours, and premature death. Deletion of Nav1.1 channels selectively impairs excitability of GABAergic interneurons. We studied mice having selective deletion of Nav1.1 in parvalbumin- or somatostatin-expressing interneurons. In brain slices, these deletions cause increased threshold for action potential generation, impaired action potential firing in trains, and reduced amplification of postsynaptic potentials in those interneurons. Selective deletion of Nav1.1 in parvalbumin- or somatostatin-expressing interneurons increases susceptibility to thermally-induced seizures, which are strikingly prolonged when Nav1.1 is deleted in both interneuron types. Mice with global haploinsufficiency of Nav1.1 display autistic-like behaviours, hyperactivity and cognitive impairment. Haploinsufficiency of Nav1.1 in parvalbumin-expressing interneurons causes autistic-like behaviours, but not hyperactivity, whereas haploinsufficiency in somatostatin-expressing interneurons causes hyperactivity without autistic-like behaviours. Heterozygous deletion in both interneuron types is required to impair long-term spatial memory in context-dependent fear conditioning, without affecting short-term spatial learning or memory. Thus, the multi-faceted phenotypes of Dravet syndrome can be genetically dissected, revealing synergy in causing epilepsy, premature death and deficits in long-term spatial memory, but interneuron-specific effects on hyperactivity and autistic-like behaviours. These results show that multiple disease traits can arise from similar functional deficits in specific interneuron types.

Phosphorylation sites required for regulation of cardiac calcium channels in the fight-or-flight response.

L-type Ca(2+) currents conducted by CaV1.2 channels initiate excitation-contraction coupling in the heart. Their activity is increased by ß-adrenergic/cAMP signaling via phosphorylation by PKA in the fight-or-flight response, but the sites of regulation are unknown. We describe the functional role of phosphorylation of Ser1700 and Thr1704-sites of phosphorylation by PKA and casein kinase II at the interface between the proximal and distal C-terminal regulatory domains. Mutation of both residues to Ala in STAA mice reduced basal L-type Ca(2+) currents, due to a small decrease in expression and a substantial decrease in functional activity. The increase in L-type Ca(2+) current caused by isoproterenol was markedly reduced at physiological levels of stimulation (3-10 nM). Maximal increases in calcium current at nearly saturating concentrations of isoproterenol (100 nM) were also significantly reduced, but the mutation effects were smaller, suggesting that alternative regulatory mechanisms are engaged at maximal levels of stimulation. The ß-adrenergic increase in cell contraction was also diminished. STAA ventricular myocytes exhibited arrhythmic contractions in response to isoproterenol, and up to 20% of STAA cells failed to sustain contractions when stimulated at 1 Hz. STAA mice have reduced exercise capacity, and cardiac hypertrophy is evident at 3 mo. We conclude that phosphorylation of Ser1700 and Thr1704 is essential for regulation of basal activity of CaV1.2 channels and for up-regulation by ß-adrenergic signaling at physiological levels of stimulation. Disruption of phosphorylation at those sites leads to impaired cardiac function in vivo, as indicated by reduced exercise capacity and cardiac hypertrophy.

Phosphorylation sites in the Hook domain of CaVß subunits differentially modulate CaV1.2 channel function.

Regulation of L-type calcium current is critical for the development, function, and regulation of many cell types. Ca(V)1.2 channels that conduct L-type calcium currents are regulated by many protein kinases, but the sites of action of these kinases remain unknown in most cases. We combined mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and whole-cell patch clamp techniques in order to identify sites of phosphorylation of Ca(V)ß subunits in vivo and test the impact of mutations of those sites on Ca(V)1.2 channel function in vitro. Using the Ca(V)1.1 channel purified from rabbit skeletal muscle as a substrate for phosphoproteomic analysis, we found that Ser(193) and Thr(205) in the HOOK domain of Ca(V)ß1a subunits were both phosphorylated in vivo. Ser(193) is located in a potential consensus sequence for casein kinase II, but it was not phosphorylated in vitro by that kinase. In contrast, Thr(205) is located in a consensus sequence for cAMP-dependent phosphorylation, and it was robustly phosphorylated in vitro by PKA. These two sites are conserved in multiple Ca(V)ß subunit isoforms, including the principal Ca(V)ß subunit of cardiac Ca(V)1.2 channels, Ca(V)ß2b. In order to assess potential modulatory effects of phosphorylation at these sites separately from the effects of phosphorylation of the α11.2 subunit, we inserted phosphomimetic or phosphoinhibitory mutations in Ca(V)ß2b and analyzed their effects on Ca(V)1.2 channel function in transfected nonmuscle cells. The phosphomimetic mutation Ca(V)ß2b(S152E) decreased peak channel currents and shifted the voltage dependence of both activation and inactivation to more positive membrane potentials. The phosphoinhibitory mutation Ca(V)ß2b(S152A) had opposite effects. There were no differences in peak Ca(V)1.2 currents or voltage dependence between the phosphomimetic mutation Ca(V)ß2b(T164D) and the phosphoinhibitory mutation Ca(V)ß2b(T164A). However, calcium-dependent inactivation was significantly increased for the phosphomimetic mutation Ca(V)ß2b(T164D). This effect was subunit-specific, as the corresponding mutation in the palmitoylated isoform, Ca(V)ß2a, had no effect. Overall, our data identify two conserved sites of phosphorylation of the Hook domain of Ca(V)ß subunits in vivo and reveal differential modulatory effects of phosphomimetic mutations in these sites. These results reveal a new dimension of regulation of Ca(V)1.2 channels through phosphorylation of the Hook domains of their ß subunits.

Reciprocal changes in phosphorylation and methylation of mammalian brain sodium channels in response to seizures.

Voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels initiate action potentials in brain neurons and are primary therapeutic targets for anti-epileptic drugs controlling neuronal hyperexcitability in epilepsy. The molecular mechanisms underlying abnormal Nav channel expression, localization, and function during development of epilepsy are poorly understood but can potentially result from altered posttranslational modifications (PTMs). For example, phosphorylation regulates Nav channel gating, and has been proposed to contribute to acquired insensitivity to anti-epileptic drugs exhibited by Nav channels in epileptic neurons. However, whether changes in specific brain Nav channel PTMs occur acutely in response to seizures has not been established. Here, we show changes in PTMs of the major brain Nav channel, Nav1.2, after acute kainate-induced seizures. Mass spectrometry-based proteomic analyses of Nav1.2 purified from the brains of control and seizure animals revealed a significant down-regulation of phosphorylation at nine sites, primarily located in the interdomain I-II linker, the region of Nav1.2 crucial for phosphorylation-dependent regulation of activity. Interestingly, Nav1.2 in the seizure samples contained methylated arginine (MeArg) at three sites. These MeArgs were adjacent to down-regulated sites of phosphorylation, and Nav1.2 methylation increased after seizure. Phosphorylation and MeArg were not found together on the same tryptic peptide, suggesting reciprocal regulation of these two PTMs. Coexpression of Nav1.2 with the primary brain arginine methyltransferase PRMT8 led to a surprising 3-fold increase in Nav1.2 current. Reciprocal regulation of phosphorylation and MeArg of Nav1.2 may underlie changes in neuronal Nav channel function in response to seizures and also contribute to physiological modulation of neuronal excitability.

Genetic background modulates impaired excitability of inhibitory neurons in a mouse model of Dravet syndrome.

Dominant loss-of-function mutations in voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.1 cause Dravet Syndrome, an intractable childhood-onset epilepsy. NaV1.1(+/-) Dravet Syndrome mice in C57BL/6 genetic background exhibit severe seizures, cognitive and social impairments, and premature death. Here we show that Dravet Syndrome mice in pure 129/SvJ genetic background have many fewer seizures and much less premature death than in pure C57BL/6 background. These mice also have a higher threshold for thermally induced seizures, fewer myoclonic seizures, and no cognitive impairment, similar to patients with Genetic Epilepsy with Febrile Seizures Plus. Consistent with this mild phenotype, mutation of NaV1.1 channels has much less physiological effect on neuronal excitability in 129/SvJ mice. In hippocampal slices, the excitability of CA1 Stratum Oriens interneurons is selectively impaired, while the excitability of CA1 pyramidal cells is unaffected. NaV1.1 haploinsufficiency results in increased rheobase and threshold for action potential firing and impaired ability to sustain high-frequency firing. Moreover, deletion of NaV1.1 markedly reduces the amplification and integration of synaptic events, further contributing to reduced excitability of interneurons. Excitability is less impaired in inhibitory neurons of Dravet Syndrome mice in 129/SvJ genetic background. Because specific deletion of NaV1.1 in forebrain GABAergic interneuons is sufficient to cause the symptoms of Dravet Syndrome in mice, our results support the conclusion that the milder phenotype in 129/SvJ mice is caused by lesser impairment of sodium channel function and electrical excitability in their forebrain interneurons. This mild impairment of excitability of interneurons leads to a milder disease phenotype in 129/SvJ mice, similar to Genetic Epilepsy with Febrile Seizures Plus in humans.

Sleep impairment and reduced interneuron excitability in a mouse model of Dravet Syndrome.

Dravet Syndrome (DS) is caused by heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.1. Our mouse genetic model of DS recapitulates its severe seizures and premature death. Sleep disturbance is common in DS, but its mechanism is unknown. Electroencephalographic studies revealed abnormal sleep in DS mice, including reduced delta wave power, reduced sleep spindles, increased brief wakes, and numerous interictal spikes in Non-Rapid-Eye-Movement sleep. Theta power was reduced in Rapid-Eye-Movement sleep. Mice with NaV1.1 deleted specifically in forebrain interneurons exhibited similar sleep pathology to DS mice, but without changes in circadian rhythm. Sleep architecture depends on oscillatory activity in the thalamocortical network generated by excitatory neurons in the ventrobasal nucleus (VBN) of the thalamus and inhibitory GABAergic neurons in the reticular nucleus of the thalamus (RNT). Whole-cell NaV current was reduced in GABAergic RNT neurons but not in VBN neurons. Rebound firing of action potentials following hyperpolarization, the signature firing pattern of RNT neurons during sleep, was also reduced. These results demonstrate imbalance of excitatory vs. inhibitory neurons in this circuit. As predicted from this functional impairment, we found substantial deficit in homeostatic rebound of slow wave activity following sleep deprivation. Although sleep disorders in epilepsies have been attributed to anti-epileptic drugs, our results show that sleep disorder in DS mice arises from loss of NaV1.1 channels in forebrain GABAergic interneurons without drug treatment. Impairment of NaV currents and excitability of GABAergic RNT neurons are correlated with impaired sleep quality and homeostasis in these mice.

Modulation of CaV2.1 channels by neuronal calcium sensor-1 induces short-term synaptic facilitation.

Facilitation and inactivation of P/Q-type Ca2+ currents mediated by Ca2+/calmodulin binding to Ca(V)2.1 channels contribute to facilitation and rapid depression of synaptic transmission, respectively. Other calcium sensor proteins displace calmodulin from its binding site and differentially modulate P/Q-type Ca2 + currents, resulting in diverse patterns of short-term synaptic plasticity. Neuronal calcium sensor-1 (NCS-1, frequenin) has been shown to enhance synaptic facilitation, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. We report here that NCS-1 directly interacts with IQ-like motif and calmodulin-binding domain in the C-terminal domain of Ca(V)2.1 channel. NCS-1 reduces Ca2 +-dependent inactivation of P/Q-type Ca2+ current through interaction with the IQ-like motif and calmodulin-binding domain without affecting peak current or activation kinetics. Expression of NCS-1 in presynaptic superior cervical ganglion neurons has no effect on synaptic transmission, eliminating effects of this calcium sensor protein on endogenous N-type Ca2+ currents and the endogenous neurotransmitter release machinery. However, in superior cervical ganglion neurons expressing wild-type Ca(V)2.1 channels, co-expression of NCS-1 induces facilitation of synaptic transmission in response to paired pulses and trains of depolarizing stimuli, and this effect is lost in Ca(V)2.1 channels with mutations in the IQ-like motif and calmodulin-binding domain. These results reveal that NCS-1 directly modulates Ca(V)2.1 channels to induce short-term synaptic facilitation and further demonstrate that CaS proteins are crucial in fine-tuning short-term synaptic plasticity.

Fine-tuning synaptic plasticity by modulation of Ca(V)2.1 channels with Ca2+ sensor proteins.

Modulation of P/Q-type Ca(2+) currents through presynaptic voltage-gated calcium channels (Ca(V)2.1) by binding of Ca(2+)/calmodulin contributes to short-term synaptic plasticity. Ca(2+)-binding protein-1 (CaBP1) and Visinin-like protein-2 (VILIP-2) are neurospecific calmodulin-like Ca(2+) sensor proteins that differentially modulate Ca(V)2.1 channels, but how they contribute to short-term synaptic plasticity is unknown. Here, we show that activity-dependent modulation of presynaptic Ca(V)2.1 channels by CaBP1 and VILIP-2 has opposing effects on short-term synaptic plasticity in superior cervical ganglion neurons. Expression of CaBP1, which blocks Ca(2+)-dependent facilitation of P/Q-type Ca(2+) current, markedly reduced facilitation of synaptic transmission. VILIP-2, which blocks Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation of P/Q-type Ca(2+) current, reduced synaptic depression and increased facilitation under conditions of high release probability. These results demonstrate that activity-dependent regulation of presynaptic Ca(V)2.1 channels by differentially expressed Ca(2+) sensor proteins can fine-tune synaptic responses to trains of action potentials and thereby contribute to the diversity of short-term synaptic plasticity.

Asynchronous Ca2+ current conducted by voltage-gated Ca2+ (CaV)-2.1 and CaV2.2 channels and its implications for asynchronous neurotransmitter release.

We have identified an asynchronously activated Ca(2+) current through voltage-gated Ca(2+) (Ca(V))-2.1 and Ca(V)2.2 channels, which conduct P/Q- and N-type Ca(2+) currents that initiate neurotransmitter release. In nonneuronal cells expressing Ca(V)2.1 or Ca(V)2.2 channels and in hippocampal neurons, prolonged Ca(2+) entry activates a Ca(2+) current, I(Async), which is observed on repolarization and decays slowly with a half-time of 150-300 ms. I(Async) is not observed after L-type Ca(2+) currents of similar size conducted by Ca(V)1.2 channels. I(Async) is Ca(2+)-selective, and it is unaffected by changes in Na(+), K(+), Cl(-), or H(+) or by inhibitors of a broad range of ion channels. During trains of repetitive depolarizations, I(Async) increases in a pulse-wise manner, providing Ca(2+) entry that persists between depolarizations. In single-cultured hippocampal neurons, trains of depolarizations evoke excitatory postsynaptic currents that show facilitation followed by depression accompanied by asynchronous postsynaptic currents that increase steadily during the train in parallel with I(Async). I(Async) is much larger for slowly inactivating Ca(V)2.1 channels containing ß(2a)-subunits than for rapidly inactivating channels containing ß(1b)-subunits. I(Async) requires global rises in intracellular Ca(2+), because it is blocked when Ca(2+) is chelated by 10 mM EGTA in the patch pipette. Neither mutations that prevent Ca(2+) binding to calmodulin nor mutations that prevent calmodulin regulation of Ca(V)2.1 block I(Async). The rise of I(Async) during trains of stimuli, its decay after repolarization, its dependence on global increases of Ca(2+), and its enhancement by ß(2a)-subunits all resemble asynchronous release, suggesting that I(Async) is a Ca(2+) source for asynchronous neurotransmission.

Structural basis for gating charge movement in the voltage sensor of a sodium channel.

Voltage-dependent gating of ion channels is essential for electrical signaling in excitable cells, but the structural basis for voltage sensor function is unknown. We constructed high-resolution structural models of resting, intermediate, and activated states of the voltage-sensing domain of the bacterial sodium channel NaChBac using the Rosetta modeling method, crystal structures of related channels, and experimental data showing state-dependent interactions between the gating charge-carrying arginines in the S4 segment and negatively charged residues in neighboring transmembrane segments. The resulting structural models illustrate a network of ionic and hydrogen-bonding interactions that are made sequentially by the gating charges as they move out under the influence of the electric field. The S4 segment slides 6-8 Å outward through a narrow groove formed by the S1, S2, and S3 segments, rotates ∼30°, and tilts sideways at a pivot point formed by a highly conserved hydrophobic region near the middle of the voltage sensor. The S4 segment has a 3(10)-helical conformation in the narrow inner gating pore, which allows linear movement of the gating charges across the inner one-half of the membrane. Conformational changes of the intracellular one-half of S4 during activation are rigidly coupled to lateral movement of the S4-S5 linker, which could induce movement of the S5 and S6 segments and open the intracellular gate of the pore. We confirmed the validity of these structural models by comparing with a high-resolution structure of a NaChBac homolog and showing predicted molecular interactions of hydrophobic residues in the S4 segment in disulfide-locking studies.