The use of animals in physiological science: the past, the presence, and the future.

Physiology is a scientific discipline of how people's and animals' bodies function that requires traditionally suitable experimental models that often rely on animals. However, at the end of the 50th of the last century, researchers themselves addressed concerns about the use of animals for biomedical science and physiology in particular. At that time, the so-called 3R strategy was implicated where the three "R" stand for replacement, reduction, and refinement. When addressing these concerns, researchers nevertheless realized that a critical dispute about experimental models in the light of the 3R initiative may require further attention to other points such as robustness, registration, reporting, reproducibility, and rigor of the work. The question that has to be addressed now is first whether the use of animals in physiology changed in the post-3R period, whether it led to a replacement, reduction, or refinement of animal handling, and most importantly, how this affected the scientific progress in (patho)physiology. In order to address open questions concerning the relationship between the use of animals and physiological research, complete volumes of the Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology were analyzed every 10 years starting in 1950 and ending in 2020 and compared to volumes of the Journal of Physiology. It analyzed how scientists organize their projects published in the journal and what kind of models they used. The results show that physiological science has dramatically changed in the last 70 years. Replacement, reduction, and refinement were achieved to a certain level. However, during the last years, no further achievement could be seen. It seems that a certain level of animal testing is required for biomedical science and physiology in particular. Physiological studies in the present time are dominated by investigation of the physiological function of small rodents mainly mice and rats with only a few exceptions. The analysis also shows that in the future, researchers must have a critical look at further requirements of their research such as data robustness, improvement of reproducibility of data, and generation of rigor data as a prerequisite to improve our physiological view on life.

Does Cell-Type-Specific Silencing of Monoamine Oxidase B Interfere with the Development of Right Ventricle (RV) Hypertrophy or Right Ventricle Failure in Pulmonary Hypertension?

Increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation is important for the development of right ventricular (RV) hypertrophy (RVH) and failure (RVF) during pulmonary hypertension (PH). ROS molecules are produced in different compartments within the cell, with mitochondria known to produce the strongest ROS signal. Among ROS-forming mitochondrial proteins, outer-mitochondrial-membrane-located monoamine oxidases (MAOs, type A or B) are capable of degrading neurotransmitters, thereby producing large amounts of ROS. In mice, MAO-B is the dominant isoform, which is present in almost all cell types within the heart. We analyzed the effect of an inducible cardiomyocyte-specific knockout of MAO-B (cmMAO-B KO) for the development of RVH and RVF in mice. Right ventricular hypertrophy was induced by pulmonary artery banding (PAB). RV dimensions and function were measured through echocardiography. ROS production (dihydroethidium staining), protein kinase activity (PamStation device), and systemic hemodynamics (in vivo catheterization) were assessed. A significant decrease in ROS formation was measured in cmMAO-B KO mice during PAB compared to Cre-negative littermates, which was associated with reduced activity of protein kinases involved in hypertrophic growth. In contrast to littermates in which the RV was dilated and hypertrophied following PAB, RV dimensions were unaffected in response to PAB in cmMAO-B KO mice, and no decline in RV systolic function otherwise seen in littermates during PAB was measured in cmMAO-B KO mice. In conclusion, cmMAO-B KO mice are protected against RV dilatation, hypertrophy, and dysfunction following RV pressure overload compared to littermates. These results support the hypothesis that cmMAO-B is a key player in causing RV hypertrophy and failure during PH.

Importance of Mitochondria in Cardiac Pathologies: Focus on Uncoupling Proteins and Monoamine Oxidases.

On the one hand, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in the onset and progression of a wide array of diseases. On the other hand, these are a part of signaling pathways related to cell metabolism, growth and survival. While ROS are produced at various cellular sites, in cardiomyocytes the largest amount of ROS is generated by mitochondria. Apart from the electron transport chain and various other proteins, uncoupling protein (UCP) and monoamine oxidases (MAO) have been proposed to modify mitochondrial ROS formation. Here, we review the recent information on UCP and MAO in cardiac injuries induced by ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) as well as protection from I/R and heart failure secondary to I/R injury or pressure overload. The current data in the literature suggest that I/R will preferentially upregulate UCP2 in cardiac tissue but not UCP3. Studies addressing the consequences of such induction are currently inconclusive because the precise function of UCP2 in cardiac tissue is not well understood, and tissue- and species-specific aspects complicate the situation. In general, UCP2 may reduce oxidative stress by mild uncoupling and both UCP2 and UCP3 affect substrate utilization in cardiac tissue, thereby modifying post-ischemic remodeling. MAOs are important for the physiological regulation of substrate concentrations. Upon increased expression and or activity of MAOs, however, the increased production of ROS and reactive aldehydes contribute to cardiac alterations such as hypertrophy, inflammation, irreversible cardiomyocyte injury, and failure.

Effects of voluntary exercise on the expression of browning markers in visceral and subcutaneous fat tissue of normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats.

High physical activity is important to optimize the function of adipose tissue. Dysfunctional adipose tissue contributes to the development of metabolic stress, chronic inflammation, and hypertension. To improve our current understanding of the interaction between physical exercise and adipose tissue, we analyzed the effect of 10 months voluntary running wheel activity of rats on uncoupling protein (UCP) 1 negative white adipose tissue (visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue, VWAT and SWAT). Analysis was performed via RT-PCR and immunoblot from adipose tissues depicted from adult normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive female rats. UCP1 negative VWAT differed from UCP1 positive WAT and brown adipose tissue (BAT) from interscapular fat depots, by lacking the expression of UCP1 and low expression of Cidea, a transcriptional co-activator of UCP1. High physical activity affected the expression of five genes in SWAT (Visfatin (up), RBP5, adiponectin, Cidea, and Nrg4 (all down)) but only one gene (Visfatin, up) in VWAT. Furthermore, the expression of these genes is differentially regulated in VWAT and SWAT of normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) under sedentary conditions (UCP2) and exercise (Visfatin, Cidea, Nrg4). Keeping the animals after 6 months of voluntary exercise under observation for an additional period of 4 months without running wheels, Visfatin, Cidea, and Nrg4 were stronger expressed in VWAT of SHRs than in sedentary control rats. In summary, our study shows that SWAT is more responsible to exercise than VWAT.

Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin Kexin Type 9 (PCSK9) Deletion but Not Inhibition of Extracellular PCSK9 Reduces Infarct Sizes Ex Vivo but Not In Vivo.

Hypoxia upregulates PCSK9 expression in the heart, and PCSK9 affects the function of myocytes. This study aimed to investigate the impact of PCSK9 on reperfusion injury in rats and mice fed normal or high-fat diets. Either the genetic knockout of PCSK9 (mice) or the antagonism of circulating PCSK9 via Pep2-8 (mice and rats) was used. Isolated perfused hearts were exposed to 45 min of ischemia followed by 120 min of reperfusion. In vivo, mice were fed normal or high-fat diets (2% cholesterol) for eight weeks prior to coronary artery occlusion (45 min of ischemia) and reperfusion (120 min). Ischemia/reperfusion upregulates PCSK9 expression (rats and mice) and releases it into the perfusate. The inhibition of extracellular PCSK9 does not affect infarct sizes or functional recovery. However, genetic deletion largely reduces infarct size and improves post-ischemic recovery in mice ex vivo but not in vivo. A high-fat diet reduced the survival rate during ischemia and reperfusion, but in a PCSK9-independent manner that was associated with increased plasma matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)9 activity. PCSK9 deletion, but not the inhibition of extracellular PCSK9, reduces infarct sizes in ex vivo hearts, but this effect is overridden in vivo by factors such as MMP9.

Connexin 43 phosphorylation by casein kinase 1 is essential for the cardioprotection by ischemic preconditioning.

Myocardial connexin 43 (Cx43) forms gap junctions and hemichannels, and is also present within subsarcolemmal mitochondria. The protein is phosphorylated by several kinases including mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), protein kinase C (PKC), and casein kinase 1 (CK1). A reduction in Cx43 content abrogates myocardial infarct size reduction by ischemic preconditioning (IPC). The present study characterizes the contribution of Cx43 phosphorylation towards mitochondrial function, hemichannel activity, and the cardioprotection by IPC in wild-type (WT) mice and in mice in which Cx43-phosphorylation sites targeted by above kinases are mutated to non-phosphorylatable residues (Cx43MAPKmut, Cx43PKCmut, and Cx43CK1mut mice). The amount of Cx43 in the left ventricle and in mitochondria was reduced in all mutant strains compared to WT mice and Cx43 phosphorylation was altered at residues not directly targeted by the mutations. Whereas complex 1 respiration was reduced in all strains, complex 2 respiration was decreased in Cx43CK1mut mice only. In Cx43 epitope-mutated mice, formation of reactive oxygen species and opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore were not affected. The hemichannel open probability was reduced in Cx43PKCmut and Cx43CK1mut but not in Cx43MAPKmut cardiomyocytes. Infarct size in isolated saline-perfused hearts after ischemia/reperfusion (45 min/120 min) was comparable between genotypes and was significantly reduced by IPC (3 × 3 min ischemia/5 min reperfusion) in WT, Cx43MAPKmut, and Cx43PKCmut, but not in Cx43CK1mut mice, an effect independent from the amount of Cx43 and the probability of hemichannel opening. Taken together, our study shows that alterations of Cx43 phosphorylation affect specific cellular functions and highlights the importance of Cx43 phosphorylation by CK1 for IPC's cardioprotection.

Matrix Metalloproteinases Repress Hypertrophic Growth in Cardiac Myocytes.

PURPOSE: Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are identified as modulators of the extracellular matrix in heart failure progression. However, evidence for intracellular effects of MMPs is emerging. Pro- and anti-hypertrophic cardiac effects are described. This may be due to the various sources of different MMPs in the heart tissue. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine the role of MMPs in hypertrophic growth of isolated rat ventricular cardiac myocytes. METHODS: Cardiomyocytes were isolated form ventricular tissues of the rat hearts by collagenase perfusion. RT-qPCR, western blots, and zymography were used for expression and MMP activity analysis. Cross-sectional area and the rate of protein synthesis were determined as parameters for hypertrophic growth. RESULTS: MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-9 and MMP-14 mRNAs were detected in cardiomyocytes, and protein expression of MMP-2, MMP-9, and MMP-14 was identified. Hypertrophic stimulation of cardiomyocytes did not enhance, but interestingly decreased expression of MMPs, indicating that downregulation of MMPs may promote hypertrophic growth. Indeed, the nonselective MMP inhibitors TAPI-0 or TIMP2 and the MMP-2-selective ARP-100 enhanced hypertrophic growth. Furthermore, TAPI-0 increased phosphorylation and thus activation of extracellular signaling kinase (ERK) and Akt (protein kinase B), as well as inhibition of glycogen synthase 3ß (GSK3ß). Abrogation of MEK/ERK- or phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase(PI3K)/Akt/GSK3ß-signaling with PD98059 or LY290042, respectively, inhibited hypertrophic growth under TAPI-0. CONCLUSION: MMPs' inhibition promotes hypertrophic growth in cardiomyocytes in vitro. Therefore, MMPs in the healthy heart may be important players to repress cardiac hypertrophy.

Ischaemic post-conditioning in rats: Responder and non-responder differ in transcriptome of mitochondrial proteins.

Ischaemic post-conditioning (IPoC) is a clinical applicable procedure to reduce reperfusion injury. Non-responsiveness to IPoC possibly caused by co-morbidities limits its clinical attractiveness. We analysed differences in the expression of mitochondrial proteins between IPoC responder (IPoC-R) and non-responder (IPoC-NR). Eighty rats were randomly grouped to sham, ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R), IPoC or ischaemic pre-conditioning (IPC, as positive cardioprotective intervention) in vivo. Infarct sizes were quantified by plasma troponin I levels 60 minutes after reperfusion. After 7 days, rats were sacrificed and left ventricular tissue was taken for post hoc analysis. The transcriptome was analysed by qRT-PCR and small RNA sequencing. Key findings were verified by immunoblots. I/R increased plasma troponin I levels compared to Sham. IPC reduced troponin I compared to I/R, whereas IPoC produced either excellent protection (IPoC-R) or no protection (IPoC-NR). Twenty-one miRs were up-regulated by I/R and modified by IPoC. qRT-PCR analysis revealed that IPoC-R differed from other groups by reduced expression of arginase-2 and bax, whereas the mitochondrial uncoupling protein (UCP)-2 was induced in IPC and IPoC-R. IPoC-R and IPoC-NR synergistically increased the expression of non-mitochondrial proteins like VEGF and SERCA2a independent of the infarct size. Cardiac function was more closely linked to differences in mitochondrial proteins than on regulation of calcium-handling proteins. In conclusion, healthy rats could not always be protected by IPoC. IPoC-NR displayed an incomplete responsiveness which is reflected by different changes in the mitochondrial transcriptome compared to IPoC-R. This study underlines the importance of mitochondrial proteins for successful long-term outcome.

Respiratory chain signalling is essential for adaptive remodelling following cardiac ischaemia.

Cardiac ischaemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury has been attributed to stress signals arising from an impaired mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC), which include redox imbalance, metabolic stalling and excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The alternative oxidase (AOX) is a respiratory enzyme, absent in mammals, that accepts electrons from a reduced quinone pool to reduce oxygen to water, thereby restoring electron flux when impaired and, in the process, blunting ROS production. Hence, AOX represents a natural rescue mechanism from respiratory stress. This study aimed to determine how respiratory restoration through xenotopically expressed AOX affects the re-perfused post-ischaemic mouse heart. As expected, AOX supports ETC function and attenuates the ROS load in post-anoxic heart mitochondria. However, post-ischaemic cardiac remodelling over 3 and 9 weeks was not improved. AOX blunted transcript levels of factors known to be up-regulated upon I/R such as the atrial natriuretic peptide (Anp) whilst expression of pro-fibrotic and pro-apoptotic transcripts were increased. Ex vivo analysis revealed contractile failure at nine but not 3 weeks after ischaemia whilst label-free quantitative proteomics identified an increase in proteins promoting adverse extracellular matrix remodelling. Together, this indicates an essential role for ETC-derived signals during cardiac adaptive remodelling and identified ROS as a possible effector.

Autocrine effects of PCSK9 on cardiomyocytes.

Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is in the focus of cardiovascular research due to its role in hepatic low density lipoprotein (LDL) clearance. However, extrahepatic expression of PCSK9 such as in cardiomyocytes and its regulation by oxidized LDL (oxLDL) put notion on extrahepatic effects of PCSK9 as well. This study was aimed to reveal the role of PCSK9 in oxLDL-dependent regulation of cardiomyocyte function. Adult rat and mouse ventricular cardiomyocytes and isolated perfused hearts were used. OxLDL was applied to increase PCSK9 expression in cardiomyocytes. Cell function was analyzed by load-free cell shortening as well as left ventricular developed pressure of isolated hearts. OxLDL decreased shortening in wild-type-derived mouse cardiomyocytes but not in those isolated from PCSK9 knockout mice. Overexpression of human PCSK9 in rat cardiomyocytes reduced shortening in the absence of oxLDL. Addition of recombinant PCSK9 mimicked these effects. In cardiomyocytes, oxLDL induced PCSK9 release into the supernatant. Inhibition of PCSK9 by Pep 2-8 or alirocumab attenuated the oxLDL-induced loss of cardiomyocyte shortening. Cardiomyocytes express surfeit locus protein 4 (SURF-4), a protein required for PCSK9 secretion in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK 293 T), and silencing of SURF-4 reduced the oxLDL effects on cardiomyocytes. In isolated perfused rat hearts PCSK9 inhibition by alirocumab improved the function. In addition, left ventricular function of isolated hearts from PCSK9 knockout mice was increased under basal conditions as well as at 10 min and 120 min of reperfusion following 45 min of ischemia. Collectively, the data show that cardiomyocytes express and release PCSK9 that acts in an autocrine way on cardiomyocytes and impairs their function.

Swiprosin-1/EFhD-2 Expression in Cardiac Remodeling and Post-Infarct Repair: Effect of Ischemic Conditioning.

Swiprosin-1 (EFhD2) is a molecule that triggers structural adaptation of isolated adult rat cardiomyocytes to cell culture conditions by initiating a process known as cell spreading. This process mimics central aspects of cardiac remodeling, as it occurs subsequent to myocardial infarction. However, expression of swiprosin-1 in cardiac tissue and its regulation in vivo has not yet been addressed. The expression of swiprosin-1 was analyzed in mice, rat, and pig hearts undergoing myocardial infarction or ischemia/reperfusion with or without cardiac protection by ischemic pre- and postconditioning. In mouse hearts, swiprosin-1 protein expression was increased after 4 and 7 days in myocardial infarct areas specifically in cardiomyocytes as verified by immunoblotting and histology. In rat hearts, swiprosin-1 mRNA expression was induced within 7 days after ischemia/reperfusion but this induction was abrogated by conditioning. As in cultured cardiomyocytes, the expression of swiprosin-1 was associated with a coinduction of arrestin-2, suggesting a common mechanism of regulation. Rno-miR-32-3p and rno-miR-34c-3p were associated with the regulation pattern of both molecules. Moreover, induction of swiprosin-1 and ssc-miR-34c was also confirmed in the infarct zone of pigs. In summary, our data show that up-regulation of swiprosin-1 appears in the postischemic heart during cardiac remodeling and repair in different species.

Lack of Contribution of p66shc to Pressure Overload-Induced Right Heart Hypertrophy.

The leading cause of death in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is right ventricular (RV) failure (RVF). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been suggested to play a role in the development of RV hypertrophy (RVH) and the transition to RVF. The hydrogen peroxide-generating protein p66shc has been associated with left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy but its role in RVH is unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine whether genetic deletion of p66shc affects the development and/or progression of RVH and RVF in the pulmonary artery banding (PAB) model of RV pressure overload. The impact of p66shc on mitochondrial ROS formation, RV cardiomyocyte function, as well as on RV morphology and function were studied three weeks after PAB or sham operation. PAB in wild type mice did not affect mitochondrial ROS production or RV cardiomyocyte function, but induced RVH and impaired cardiac function. Genetic deletion of p66shc did also not alter basal mitochondrial ROS production or RV cardiomyocyte function, but impaired RV cardiomyocyte shortening was observed following PAB. The development of RVH and RVF following PAB was not affected by p66shc deletion. Thus, our data suggest that p66shc-derived ROS are not involved in the development and progression of RVH or RVF in PAH.

P66shc and its role in ischemic cardiovascular diseases.

Oxidative stress caused by an imbalance in the formation and removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays an important role in the development of several cardiovascular diseases. ROS originate from various cellular origins; however, the highest amount of ROS is produced by mitochondria. One of the proteins contributing to mitochondrial ROS formation is the adaptor protein p66shc, which upon cellular stresses translocates from the cytosol to the mitochondria. In the present review, we focus on the role of p66shc in longevity, in the development of cardiovascular diseases including diabetes, atherosclerosis and its risk factors, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury and the protection from it by ischemic preconditioning. Also, the contribution of p66shc towards cerebral pathologies and the potential of the protein as a therapeutic target for the treatment of the aforementioned diseases are discussed.

Effect of nitric oxide deficiency on the pulmonary PTHrP system.

Nitric oxide (NO) deficiency is common in pulmonary diseases, but its effect on pulmonary remodelling is still controversial. As pulmonary parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) expression is a key regulator of pulmonary fibrosis and development, the effect of chronic NO deficiency on the pulmonary PTHrP system and its relationship with oxidative stress was addressed. NO bioavailability in adult rats was reduced by systemic administration of L-NAME via tap water. To clarify the role of NO synthase (NOS)-3-derived NO on pulmonary expression of PTHrP, NOS-3-deficient mice were used. Captopril and hydralazine were used to reduce the hypertensive effect of L-NAME treatment and to interfere with the pulmonary renin-angiotensin system (RAS). Quantitative RT-PCR and immunoblot techniques were used to characterize the expression of key proteins involved in pulmonary remodelling. L-NAME administration significantly reduced pulmonary NO concentration and caused oxidative stress as characterized by increased pulmonary nitrite concentration and increased expression of NOX2, p47phox and p67phox. Furthermore, L-NAME induced the pulmonary expression of PTHrP and of its corresponding receptor, PTH-1R. Expression of PTHrP and PTH-1R correlated with the expression of two well-established PTHrP downstream targets, ADRP and PPARγ, suggesting an activation of the pulmonary PTHrP system by NO deficiency. Captopril reduced the expression of PTHrP, profibrotic markers and ornithine decarboxylase, but neither that of PTH-1R nor that of ADRP and PPARγ. All transcriptional changes were confirmed in NOS-3-deficient mice. In conclusion, NOS-3-derived NO suppresses pulmonary PTHrP and PTH-1R expression, thereby modifying pulmonary remodelling.

The Role of Calcium-Sensing Receptors in Endothelin-1-Dependent Effects on Adult Rat Ventricular Cardiomyocytes: Possible Contribution to Adaptive Myocardial Hypertrophy.

Nitric oxide (NO)-deficiency as it occurs during endothelial dysfunction activates the endothelin-1 (ET-1) system and increases the expression of receptor activity modifying protein (RAMP)-1 that acts as a chaperon for calcium-sensing receptors (CaR) that have recently been identified to improve cardiac function. Here, we hypothesized that ET-1 increases the cardiac expression of CaR and thereby induces an adaptive type of hypertrophy. Expressions of RAMP-1, endothelin receptors, and CaR were analyzed by RT-PCR in left ventricular tissues of L-NAME-treated rats. Effects of ET-1 on CaR expression and cell function (load free cell shortening) were analyzed in adult rat ventricular cardiomyocytes. siRNA directed against CaR and RAMP-1 was used to investigate a causal relationship. PD142893 and BQ788 were used to dissect the contribution of ETB1 , ETB2 , and ETA receptors. Non-specific NO synthase inhibition with L-Nitro arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) caused a cardiac upregulation of ETB receptors and CaR suggesting a paracrine effect of ET-1 on cardiomyocytes. Indeed, ET-1 induced the expression of CaR in cultured cardiomyocytes. Under these conditions, cardiomyocytes increased cell size (hypertrophy) but maintained normal function. Inhibition of ETA and ETB1 receptors led to ET-1-dependent reduction in cell shortening and attenuated up-regulation of CaR. Down-regulation of RAMP-1 reduced CaR responsiveness. In conclusion, ET-1 causes an adaptive type of hypertrophy by up-regulation of CaR in cardiomyocytes via ETA and/or ETB1 receptors. J. Cell. Physiol. 232: 2508-2518, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Physiological and therapeutic regulation of PCSK9 activity in cardiovascular disease.

Ischemic heart disease is the main cause of death worldwide and is accelerated by increased levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a potent circulating regulator of LDL-C through its ability to induce degradation of the LDL receptor (LDLR) in the lysosome of hepatocytes. Only in the last few years, a number of breakthroughs in the understanding of PCSK9 biology have been reported illustrating how PCSK9 activity is tightly regulated at several levels by factors influencing its transcription, secretion, or by extracellular inactivation and clearance. Two humanized antibodies directed against the LDLR-binding site in PCSK9 received approval by the European and US authorities and additional PCSK9 directed therapeutics are climbing up the phases of clinical trials. The first outcome data of the PCSK9 inhibitor evolocumab reported a significant reduction in the composite endpoint (cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, or stroke) and further outcome data are awaited. Meanwhile, it became evident that PCSK9 has (patho)physiological roles in several cardiovascular cells. In this review, we summarize and discuss the recent biological and clinical data on PCSK9, the regulation of PCSK9, its extra-hepatic activities focusing on cardiovascular cells, molecular concepts to target PCSK9, and finally briefly summarize the data of recent clinical studies.

Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) affects load-free cell shortening of cardiomyocytes in a proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9 (PCSK9)-dependent way.

Recent studies have documented that oxidized low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (oxLDL) levels directly impact myocardial structure and function. However, the molecular mechanisms by which oxLDL affects cardiac myocytes are not well established. We addressed the question whether oxLDL modifies load-free cell shortening, a standardized readout of cardiac cellular function, and investigated whether proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin-9 (PCSK9) is involved on oxLDL-dependent processes. Adult rat ventricular cardiomyocytes were isolated and incubated for 24 h with oxLDL. PCSK9 was silenced by administration of siRNA. Load-free cell shortening was analyzed via a line camera at a beating frequency of 2 Hz. RT-PCR and immunoblots were used to identify molecular pathways. We observed a concentration-dependent reduction of load-free cell shortening that was independent of cell damage (apoptosis, necrosis). The effect of oxLDL was attenuated by silencing of oxLDL receptors (LOX-1), blockade of p38 MAP kinase activation, and silencing of PCSK9. oxLDL increased the expression of PCSK9 and caused oxidative modification of tropomyosin. In conclusion, we found that oxLDL significantly impaired contractile function via induction of PCSK9. This is the first report about the expression of PCSK9 in adult terminal differentiated ventricular cardiomyocytes. The data are important in the light of recent development of PCSK9 inhibitory strategies.

Mitochondrial Cx43 hemichannels contribute to mitochondrial calcium entry and cell death in the heart.

Mitochondrial connexin 43 (Cx43) plays a key role in cardiac cytoprotection caused by repeated exposure to short periods of non-lethal ischemia/reperfusion, a condition known as ischemic preconditioning. Cx43 also forms calcium (Ca2+)-permeable hemichannels that may potentially lead to mitochondrial Ca2+ overload and cell death. Here, we studied the role of Cx43 in facilitating mitochondrial Ca2+ entry and investigated its downstream consequences. To that purpose, we used various connexin-targeting peptides interacting with extracellular (Gap26) and intracellular (Gap19, RRNYRRNY) Cx43 domains, and tested their effect on mitochondrial dye- and Ca2+-uptake, electrophysiological properties of plasmalemmal and mitochondrial Cx43 channels, and cell injury/cell death. Our results in isolated mice cardiac subsarcolemmal mitochondria indicate that Cx43 forms hemichannels that contribute to Ca2+ entry and may trigger permeability transition and cell injury/death. RRNYRRNY displayed the strongest effects in all assays and inhibited plasma membrane as well as mitochondrial Cx43 hemichannels. RRNYRRNY also strongly reduced the infarct size in ex vivo cardiac ischemia-reperfusion studies. These results indicate that Cx43 contributes to mitochondrial Ca2+ homeostasis and is involved in triggering cell injury/death pathways that can be inhibited by RRNYRRNY peptide.

Diastolic dysfunction in prediabetic male rats: Role of mitochondrial oxidative stress.

Although incidence and prevalence of prediabetes are increasing, little is known about its cardiac effects. Therefore, our aim was to investigate the effect of prediabetes on cardiac function and to characterize parameters and pathways associated with deteriorated cardiac performance. Long-Evans rats were fed with either control or high-fat chow for 21 wk and treated with a single low dose (20 mg/kg) of streptozotocin at week 4 High-fat and streptozotocin treatment induced prediabetes as characterized by slightly elevated fasting blood glucose, impaired glucose and insulin tolerance, increased visceral adipose tissue and plasma leptin levels, as well as sensory neuropathy. In prediabetic animals, a mild diastolic dysfunction was observed, the number of myocardial lipid droplets increased, and left ventricular mass and wall thickness were elevated; however, no molecular sign of fibrosis or cardiac hypertrophy was shown. In prediabetes, production of reactive oxygen species was elevated in subsarcolemmal mitochondria. Expression of mitofusin-2 was increased, while the phosphorylation of phospholamban and expression of Bcl-2/adenovirus E1B 19-kDa protein-interacting protein 3 (BNIP3, a marker of mitophagy) decreased. However, expression of other markers of cardiac auto- and mitophagy, mitochondrial dynamics, inflammation, heat shock proteins, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II, mammalian target of rapamycin, or apoptotic pathways were unchanged in prediabetes. This is the first comprehensive analysis of cardiac effects of prediabetes indicating that mild diastolic dysfunction and cardiac hypertrophy are multifactorial phenomena that are associated with early changes in mitophagy, cardiac lipid accumulation, and elevated oxidative stress and that prediabetes-induced oxidative stress originates from the subsarcolemmal mitochondria.