Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Stress Induces Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) Expression via the PI3K-Akt-GSK3ß Signaling Pathway and Promotes Hepatocellular Injury.

Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), an NAD(+)-dependent histone deacetylase, plays crucial roles in various biological processes including longevity, stress response, and cell survival. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is caused by dysfunction of ER homeostasis and exacerbates various diseases including diabetes, fatty liver, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Although several reports have shown that SIRT1 negatively regulates ER stress and ER stress-induced responses in vitro and in vivo, the effect of ER stress on SIRT1 is less explored. In this study, we showed that ER stress induced SIRT1 expression in vitro and in vivo. We further determined the molecular mechanisms of how ER stress induces SIRT1 expression. Surprisingly, the conventional ER stress-activated transcription factors XBP1, ATF4, and ATF6 seem to be dispensable for SIRT1 induction. Based on inhibitor screening experiments with SIRT1 promoter, we found that the PI3K-Akt-GSK3ß signaling pathway is required for SIRT1 induction by ER stress. Moreover, we showed that pharmacological inhibition of SIRT1 by EX527 inhibited the ER stress-induced cellular death in vitro and severe hepatocellular injury in vivo, indicating a detrimental role of SIRT1 in ER stress-induced damage responses. Collectively, these data suggest that SIRT1 expression is up-regulated by ER stress and contributes to ER stress-induced cellular damage.

CFTR-deficiency renders mice highly susceptible to cutaneous symptoms during mite infestation.

Pruritus, also known as itch, is a sensation that causes a desire to scratch. Prolonged scratching exacerbates skin lesions in several skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis. Here, we identify the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR/Cftr), an integral membrane protein that mediates transepithelial chloride transport, as a determinant factor in mice for the susceptibility to several cutaneous symptoms during mite infestation. Mice that endogenously express dysfunctional Cftr (Cftr(ΔF508/ΔF508)) show significant increase of scratching behavior and skin fibrosis after mite exposure. These phenotypes were due to the increased expression of nerve growth factor (NGF) that augments the sensitization of peripheral nerve fibers. Moreover, protein gene product 9.5 (PGP9.5)-positive neurites were abundant in the epidermis of mite-infested Cftr(ΔF508/ΔF508) mice. Furthermore, mite-infested Cftr(+/+) mice orally administered with a chloride channel inhibitor glibenclamide had higher scratching count and increased level of NGF than vehicle-treated mice. Consistently, mite extract-exposed primary and transformed human keratinocytes, treated with CFTR inhibitor, had significantly higher level of NGF mRNA compared with vehicle-treated, mite extract-exposed cells. These results reveal that CFTR in keratinocytes plays a critical role for the regulation of peripheral nerve function and pruritus sensation, and suggest that Cftr(ΔF508/ΔF508) mice may serve as a novel mouse model that represents NGF-dependent generation of pruritus.

Curcumin decreases toll-like receptor-2 gene expression and function in human monocytes and neutrophils.

Toll-like receptor-2 (TLR2) is a pattern recognition receptor that senses many types of bacterial components and activates signaling pathways that induce inflammatory cytokines. A hyperresponsiveness to pathogens caused by increased expression of TLR2 triggers exaggeration of some inflammatory diseases. Here, we showed that curcumin, a well-known anti-inflammatory agent derived from the curry spice turmeric, inhibits TLR2 expression in various TLR2-expressing innate immune cell lines such as monocytic THP-1 cells, neutrophilic-differentiated HL-60 cells. Strong suppression of TLR2 gene expression was specifically observed at concentrations of curcumin in the range 40-100muM. Consistent with decreased expression of TLR2 mRNA, protein expression and ligand-responsiveness of TLR2 were markedly reduced by curcumin treatment. Moreover, curcumin-dependent down-regulation of TLR2 expression and function was also observed in primary peripheral blood monocytes (MC) and polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN). Finally, we determined the importance of curcumin-dependent radical generation for the suppressive effect of curcumin on TLR2 expression. Thus, our data demonstrate that curcumin inhibits TLR2 gene expression and function possibly via an oxidative process.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress increases the expression and function of toll-like receptor-2 in epithelial cells.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is involved in a wide range of pathological conditions including neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and infection. The ability of ER stress to induce an inflammatory response is considered to play a role in the pathogenesis of these diseases. However, its role in regulating the gene expression and function of toll-like receptors (TLRs), host defense receptors that recognize invading pathogens, remains unknown. Here we showed that several well-characterized ER stress inducers (thapsigargin, tunicamycin, and dithiothreitol) increase the expression of TLR2 in epithelial cells. Ligand-responsiveness of TLR2 was also enhanced by ER stress inducers, implying a contributory role of ER stress for the regulation of TLR2-dependent inflammatory responses. Furthermore, there was significant increase of TLR2 mRNA level in the livers of tunicamycin-treated mice and high-fat diet-fed mice, suggesting an impact of ER stress in vivo on the expression of TLR2. Overexpression and knockdown experiments showed the importance of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), an ER stress-induced transcription factor, in the induction of TLR2 expression during ER stress. This was confirmed by the increased expression and function of TLR2 during treatment with salubrinal, an activator of ATF4 pathway. Taken together, our study provides further insights into the role of ER stress in enhancing host bacterial response or in exaggerating the inflammatory condition via up-regulating TLR2 expression.

DNA demethylation-dependent enhancement of toll-like receptor-2 gene expression in cystic fibrosis epithelial cells involves SP1-activated transcription.

BACKGROUND: The clinical course of cystic fibrosis (CF) is characterized by recurrent pulmonary infections and chronic inflammation. We have recently shown that decreased methylation of the toll-like receptor-2 (TLR2) promoter leads to an apparent CF-related up-regulation of TLR2. This up-regulation could be responsible, in part, for the CF-associated enhanced proinflammatory responses to various bacterial products in epithelial cells. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying DNA hypomethylation-dependent enhancement of TLR2 expression in CF cells remain unknown. RESULTS: The present study indicates that there is a specific CpG region (CpG#18-20), adjacent to the SP1 binding site that is significantly hypomethylated in several CF epithelial cell lines. These CpGs encompass a minimal promoter region required for basal TLR2 expression, and suggests that CpG#18-20 methylation regulates TLR2 expression in epithelial cells. Furthermore, reporter gene analysis indicated that the SP1 binding site is involved in the methylation-dependent regulation of the TLR2 promoter. Inhibition of SP1 with mithramycin A decreased TLR2 expression in both CF and 5-azacytidine-treated non-CF epithelial cells. Moreover, even though SP1 binding was not affected by CpG methylation, SP1-dependent transcription was abolished by CpG methylation. CONCLUSION: This report implicates SP1 as a critical component of DNA demethylation-dependent up-regulation of TLR2 expression in CF epithelial cells.

Increased responsiveness to TLR2 and TLR4 ligands during dimethylsulfoxide-induced neutrophil-like differentiation of HL-60 myeloid leukemia cells.

Neutrophils express functional toll-like receptor2 (TLR2) and 4 (TLR4) that are crucial for the production of inflammatory cytokines. Here, we show that dimethylsulfoxide-induced neutrophil-like differentiation of promyelocytic HL-60 cells (dHL-60) results in cells that respond to TLR2 and TLR4 ligands similarly to primary neutrophils. Consistent with the increased responsiveness of the cells to TLR2 ligand, the TLR2 gene was strongly up-regulated in dHL-60 cells. On the other hand, increased surface expression of LPS receptor complex, TLR4/MD2/CD14, was observed without affecting TLR4 gene expression. Thus, the data demonstrate a higher responsiveness of dHL-60 cells to TLR2 and TLR4 ligands because of increased TLR2 and MD2/CD14 gene expression.