Facial nerve electrodiagnostics for patients with facial palsy: a clinical practice guideline.

PURPOSE: Facial nerve electrodiagnostics is a well-established and important tool for decision making in patients with facial nerve diseases. Nevertheless, many otorhinolaryngologist-head and neck surgeons do not routinely use facial nerve electrodiagnostics. This may be due to a current lack of agreement on methodology, interpretation, validity, and clinical application. Electrophysiological analyses of the facial nerve and the mimic muscles can assist in diagnosis, assess the lesion severity, and aid in decision making. With acute facial palsy, it is a valuable tool for predicting recovery. METHODS: This paper presents a guideline prepared by members of the International Head and Neck Scientific Group and of the Multidisciplinary Salivary Gland Society for use in cases of peripheral facial nerve disorders based on a systematic literature search. RESULTS: Required equipment, practical implementation, and interpretation of the results of facial nerve electrodiagnostics are presented. CONCLUSION: The aim of this guideline is to inform all involved parties (i.e. otorhinolaryngologist-head and neck surgeons and other medical specialists, therapeutic professionals and the affected persons) and to provide practical recommendations for the diagnostic use of facial nerve electrodiagnostics.

Molecular and health effects in the upper respiratory tract associated with tobacco smoking other than cigarettes.

The objective of the review was to compare molecular and health effects of tobacco smoking using cigars, cigarillos, pipe and water pipe in relation to the effects of cigarette smoking. In this review we will focus on the upper respiratory tract. Mechanisms of interaction of tobacco smoke constituents after products other than cigarettes are similar to these associated with cigarette smoking. Carcinogenic activity was demonstrated for any type of tobacco smoking, although the risk of developing head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) remains lower in users of cigars, traditional pipe and water pipe as compared to cigarette smoking. Nevertheless, there is no way of safe tobacco smoking.

Radiation-induced carotid artery lesions.

PURPOSE: To review the current aspects of knowledge related to the risk of cerebrovascular events in patients receiving head and neck radiotherapy. METHODS: A literature search was performed in PubMed. Papers meeting selection criteria were reviewed. RESULTS: We provide an update on the problem by identifying key studies that have contributed to our current understanding of the epidemiology, radiologic features, pathogenesis, and treatment of the disease. The incidence of carotid artery stenosis ranged from 18 to 38% in patients who underwent radiotherapy for head and neck cancer versus from 0 to 9.2% among the nonirradiated patients. Neck irradiation increases the intima-media thickness of the carotid artery wall. These changes are the earliest visible alteration in the carotid wall and are also detected with color Doppler ultrasonography. Endovascular treatment with a carotid angioplasty and stenting is the first-line treatment for most symptomatic patients. CONCLUSIONS: Radiation-induced atherosclerosis is a different and accelerated form of atherosclerosis, which implies a more aggressive disease with a different biologic behavior. The disease is characterized by a high rate of carotid artery stenosis compared to those observed in nonirradiated control group patients. To prevent the risk of stroke, surveillance and imaging with ultrasonography should enable detection of severe stenosis. Endovascular treatment with a carotid angioplasty and stenting has been proposed as an attractive and minimally invasive alternative for some radiation-induced stenoses.

Management of the facial nerve in parotid cancer: preservation or resection and reconstruction.

PURPOSE: Management of the facial nerve is instrumental in the surgical treatment of parotid cancer. METHODS: A literature search was conducted using PubMed and ScienceDirect database. A total of 195 articles were finally included into the analysis, based on relevance, scientific evidence and actuality. RESULTS: In the majority of cases the facial nerve is not involved by tumor. In these cases, identification and preservation of the nerve, in addition to complete tumor removal, are essential for successful surgery. When the nerve is infiltrated by tumor, the affected portion of the nerve must be resected as part of radical parotidectomy. Primary nerve reconstruction or other reanimation techniques give the best long-term functional and cosmetic results. A comprehensive diagnostic evaluation with current imaging and electrophysiological studies will provide the surgeon with the best knowledge of the relationship of the facial nerve to the tumor. Several standardized methods are helpful in finding, dissecting and preserving the nerve during parotid cancer surgery. When radical parotidectomy is indicated, the initial diagnostic work-up can assist in defining the need for adjuvant postoperative therapy and facial reanimation. The aim of rehabilitation is to restore tone, symmetry, and movement to the paralyzed face. CONCLUSIONS: The surgical management of facial paralysis has undergone many improvements in recent years. This review gives an overview of recent advances in the diagnostic work-up, surgical techniques and any necessary rehabilitation of the facial nerve in parotid cancer surgery.

Metastasis to the Thyroid Gland: A Critical Review.

BACKGROUND: Metastasis to the thyroid gland from nonthyroid sites is an uncommon clinical presentation in surgical practice. The aim of this review was to assess its incidence management and outcomes. METHODS: A literature review was performed to identify reports of metastases to the thyroid gland. Both clinical and autopsy series were included. RESULTS: Metastases to the gland may be discovered at the time of diagnosis of the primary tumor, after preoperative investigation of a neck mass, or on histologic examination of a thyroidectomy specimen. The most common primary tumors in autopsy studies are from the lung. In clinical series, renal cell carcinoma is most common. For patients with widespread metastases in the setting of an aggressive malignancy, surgery is rarely indicated. However, when patients present with an isolated metastasis diagnosed during follow-up of indolent disease, surgery may achieve control of the central neck and even long-term cure. Other prognosticators include features of the primary tumor, time interval between initial diagnosis and metastasis, and extrathyroid extent of disease. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with thyroid metastases, communication among clinicians treating the thyroid and the index primary tumor is essential. The setting is complex, and decisions must be made considering the features of the primary tumor, overall burden of metastases, and comorbidities. Careful balancing of these factors influences individualized approaches.

Surgical options in benign parotid tumors: a proposal for classification.

Different surgical options are currently available for treating benign tumors of the parotid gland, and the discussion on optimal treatment continues despite several meta-analyses. These options include more limited resections (extracapsular dissection, partial lateral parotidectomy) versus more extensive and traditional options (lateral parotid lobectomy, total parotidectomy). Different schools favor one option or another based on their experience, skills and tradition. This review provides a critical analysis of the literature regarding these options. The main limitation of all the studies is the bias of selection for different surgical approaches. For this reason, we propose a staging system that could facilitate clinical decision making and the comparison of results. We propose four categories based on the size of the tumor and its location within the parotid gland. Category I includes tumors up to 3 cm, which are mobile, close to the outer surface and close to the parotid borders. Category II includes deeper tumors up to 3 cm. Category III comprises tumors greater than 3 cm involving two levels of the parotid gland, and category IV tumors are greater than 3 cm and involve more than 2 levels. For each category and for the various pathologic types, a guideline of surgical extent is proposed. The objective of this classification is to facilitate prospective multicentric studies on surgical techniques in the treatment of benign parotid tumors and to enable the comparison of results of different clinical studies.

Incidental findings of thyroid tissue in cervical lymph nodes: old controversy not yet resolved?

The clinical significance of papillary or follicular thyroid tissue incidentally discovered in cervical lymph nodes during pathological assessment of neck dissections for non-thyroid cancers of the upper aero-digestive tract is critically reviewed. Special emphasis is given to controversies over normal-looking, nodal, thyroid follicles. Arguments for and against the benign nature of these follicles are considered together with processes that could be involved in their formation. The admittedly limited evidence suggests that benign, thyroid follicular inclusions rarely occur in cervical lymph nodes. Histological criteria that could be helpful in recognizing the inclusions, which include assessing their extent in conjunction with the size of the node, are discussed. Finally, an algorithm based on collaboration between specialists, correlating histological findings with imaging and loco-regional control of the upper aero-digestive tract cancer, is suggested for the management of patients with incidentally discovered, nodal thyroid tissue.

Impact of prophylactic central neck dissection on oncologic outcomes of papillary thyroid carcinoma: a review.

Prophylactic neck dissection (PND) for papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) is controversial. Our aim was to assess current levels of evidence (LE) according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine ( http://www.cebm.net/?O=1025 ) regarding the oncologic benefits of PND. Data were analyzed via MEDLINE keywords: PTC, differentiated thyroid carcinoma, PND, central lymph node metastases, central compartment, recurrence-free survival. There was conflicting evidence regarding the rate of reoperation for recurrence, with some studies showing a lower rate after PND with increased recurrence-free survival and a higher rate of undetectable pre- and post-ablation thyroglobulin levels (LE 4), whereas other studies did not show a difference (LE 4). Only one study (LE 4) showed improved disease-specific survival with PND. PND may improve recurrence-free survival, although this is supported by only a low LE. Current recommendations can only be based on low-level evidence.

The controversy in the management of the N0 neck for squamous cell carcinoma of the maxillary sinus.

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the maxillary sinus is a relatively rare disease. As the reported incidence of regional metastasis varies widely, controversy exists as to whether or not the N0 classified neck should be treated electively. In this review, the data from published series are analyzed to decide on a recommendation of elective treatment of the neck in maxillary SCC. The published series consist of heterogeneous populations of different subsites of the paranasal sinuses, different histological types, different staging and treatment modalities used and different ways of reporting the results. These factors do not allow for recommendations based on high levels of evidence. Given this fact, the relatively high incidence rate of regional metastasis at presentation or in follow-up in the untreated N0 neck, and the relatively low toxicity of elective neck irradiation, such irradiation in SCC of the maxillary sinus should be considered.

Carotid body paragangliomas: a systematic study on management with surgery and radiotherapy.

The definitive universally accepted treatment for carotid body tumors (CBT) is surgery. The impact of surgery on cranial nerves and the carotid artery has often been underestimated. Alternatively, a few CBTs have been followed without treatment or irradiation. The goal of this study is to summarize the existing evidence concerning the efficacy and safety of surgery and external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) for CBT. Relevant articles were identified using strict criteria for systematic searches. Sixty-seven articles met the criteria which included 2,175 surgically treated patients. On the other hand, 17 articles including 127 patients treated with EBRT were found. Long-term control of the disease was obtained in 93.8% of patients who received surgical treatment and in 94.5% of the radiotherapy group. Surgery resulted in 483 (483/2,175 = 22.2%) new cranial nerve permanent deficits, whereas in the EBRT group, no new deficits were recorded (p = 0.004). The common/internal carotid artery was resected in 271 (12.5%) patients because of injury or tumor encasement, with immediate reconstruction in 212 (9.7%) patients. Three percent (60) of patients developed a permanent stroke and 1.3% (26) died due to postoperative complications. The major complications rates and the mortality after completion of the treatment also were significantly higher in surgical series compared to EBRT series. This systematic analysis highlights evidence that EBRT offers a similar chance of tumor control with lower risk of morbidity as compared to surgery in patients with CBT. This questions the traditional notion that surgery should be the mainstay of treatment.

Is elective neck dissection indicated during salvage surgery for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma?

Among patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma with a negative neck who are initially treated with (chemo)radiotherapy, a number of cases will recur locally without obvious neck recurrence. There is little information available as to the most efficacious management of the neck in these cases. We have reviewed the literature to see what conclusions can be drawn from previous reports. We conducted a bibliography search on MEDLINE and EMBASE databases. Studies published in the English language and those on squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx, larynx and hypopharynx were included. Data related to neck management were extracted from the articles. Twelve studies satisfied the inclusion criteria. Five studies reported only one treatment plan (either neck dissection or observation), while the others compared neck dissection to observation. The rate of occult metastases ranged from 3.4 to 12 %. The studies included a variable distribution of primary sites and stages of the recurrent primary tumors. The risk of occult neck node metastasis in a clinically rN0 patient correlated with tumor site and T stage. Observation of the neck can be suggested for patients with T1-2 glottic tumors, who recurred with less advanced tumors (rT1-2). For patients with more advanced laryngeal recurrences or recurrence at other high-risk sites, neck dissection could be considered for the rN0 patient, particularly if the neck was not included in the previous radiation fields.

Treatment of the neck in residual/recurrent disease after chemoradiotherapy for advanced primary laryngeal cancer.

Concomitant chemoradiotherapy (CRT) is extensively used as primary organ preservation treatment for selected advanced laryngeal squamous cell carcinomas (LSCC). The oncologic outcomes of such regimens are comparable to those of total laryngectomy followed by adjuvant radiotherapy. However, the management of loco-regional recurrences after CRT remains a challenge, with salvage total laryngectomy being the only curative option. Furthermore, the decision whether to perform an elective neck dissection (END) in patients with rN0 necks, and the extent of the neck dissection in patients with rN + necks is still, a matter of debate. For rN0 patients, meta-analyses have reported occult metastasis rates ranging from 0 to 31 %, but no survival advantage for END. In addition, meta-analyses also showed a higher incidence of complications in patients who received an END. Therefore, END is not routinely recommended in addition to salvage laryngectomy. Although some evidence suggests a potential role of END for supraglottic and locally advanced cases, the decision to perform END should weigh benefits against potential complications. In rN + patients, several studies suggested that selective neck dissection (SND) is oncologically safe for patients with specific conditions: when lymph node metastases are not fixed and are absent at level IV or V. Super-selective neck dissection (SSND) may be an option when nodes are confined to one level. In conclusion, current evidence suggests that in rN0 necks routine END is not necessary and that in rN + necks with limited nodal recurrences SND or a SSND could be sufficient.

Reflux and aerodigestive tract diseases.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease can present with a wide variety of extraesophageal symptoms. In particular, the type of disease characterized predominately by laryngopharyngeal reflux may be difficult to diagnose because of the absence of regurgitation or heartburn. The available battery of diagnostic tools is often insufficient to confirm a diagnosis of reflux, so the diagnosis is often made by elimination. In many cases, treatment with proton pump inhibitors will relieve symptoms and respiratory complications, despite the persistence of non-acidic reflux. Such treatment is often employed to "confirm" the diagnosis, as measured by patient response. Many diseases have been related to this condition in the literature. The authors review knowledge about these manifestations and their relationship with refluxed gastric content. Physiopathology, symptoms and treatment are reviewed in order to clarify our understanding of laryngopharyngeal reflux diseases and related manifestations.

Neuromonitoring of the laryngeal nerves in thyroid surgery: a critical appraisal of the literature.

One of the most significant complication of thyroid surgery is injury of the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Injury of the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve is a less obvious but occasionally significant problem. Recently, neuromonitoring during thyroidectomy has received considerable attention because of literature encouraging its use, but there is no consensus about its advantages and utility. A critical assessment of the literature on neuromonitoring was conducted in order to define its effectiveness, safety, cost-effectiveness and medical-legal impact. Available data does not show results superior to those obtained by traditional anatomical methods of nerve identification during thyroid surgery. Data about cost-effectiveness is scarce. The literature shows inconsistencies in methodology, patient selection and randomization in various published studies which may confound the conclusions of individual investigations. The current recommendation for use in "high risk" patients should be assessed because definition heterogeneity makes identification of these patients difficult. As routine use of neuromonitoring varies according to geography, its use should not be considered to be the standard of care.

Neuromonitoring in thyroidectomy: a meta-analysis of effectiveness from randomized controlled trials.

Neuromonitoring in thyroid surgery has been employed to make nerve identification easier and decrease the rates of laryngeal nerve injuries. Several individual randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have been published, which did not identify statistical differences in the rates of recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) or external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve (EBSLN) injuries. The objective of this report is to perform meta-analysis of the combined results of individual studies to measure the frequency of RLN and EBSLN injuries in patients who underwent thyroidectomy with routine neuromonitoring in comparison with common practice of search and identification. RCTs comparing routine neuromonitoring versus no use in patients who underwent elective partial or total thyroidectomy were evaluated. Outcomes measured were temporary and definitive palsy of the RLN and EBSLN. A systematic review and meta-analysis was done using random effects model. GRADE was used to classify quality of evidence. Six studies with 1,602 patients and 3,064 nerves at risk were identified. Methodological quality assessment showed high risk of bias in most items. Funnel plot did not reveal publication bias. The risk difference for temporary RLN palsy, definitive RLN palsy, temporary EBSLN palsy, and definitive EBSLN palsy were -2% (95% confidence interval -5.1 to 1); 0% (-1 to 1); -9% (-15 to -2) and -1% (-4 to 2), respectively. Quality was rated low or very low in most outcomes due to methodological flaws. Meta-analysis did not demonstrate a statistically significant decrease in the risk of temporary or definitive RLN injury and definitive EBSLN injury with the use of neuromonitoring. The neuromonitoring group had a statistically significant decrease in the risk of temporary EBSLN injury.

The evolving role of selective neck dissection for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.

Neck dissection is an important part of the surgical treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). The historical concept of neck dissection implied the removal of all lymph node-bearing tissue in the neck, which began in the late nineteenth century. However, more conservative variations of neck dissection have been performed and promoted as well. Anatomic, pathologic, clinical investigations, and prospective studies have demonstrated that the lymphatic dissemination of HNSCC occurs in predictable patterns. Supported by these studies, selective neck dissection (SND), which consists of the removal of select levels of lymph nodes in the neck that have the highest risk of harboring undetected metastases, has become widely accepted in the treatment of the clinically uninvolved neck. More recently, evidence supports using SND in a therapeutic setting in selected cases of HNSCC with limited metastatic disease. Additionally, even more targeted dissections referred to as super-selective neck dissection have been explored for selected patients undergoing elective node dissection for supraglottic cancer and as an adjuvant therapy for salvage of residual lymphadenopathy confined to a single neck level following chemoradiation. In the future, the trend to tailor treatment to individual patients and to limit toxicity and morbidity may further increase the use of SND. The indications have to be guided by further research, in relation with non-surgical treatment options while optimizing oncological effectiveness.

Superselective neck dissection: rationale, indications, and results.

It has been established that an appropriately indicated selective neck dissection can achieve the same oncologic results as more extensive dissections. An even more modified selective neck dissection, termed superselective neck dissection, involves the compartmental removal of the fibrofatty tissue contents within the defined boundaries of two or fewer contiguous neck levels. Evidence from retrospective studies suggests that superselective neck dissection (SSND) is oncologically sound for two indications: elective treatment of the clinically N0 neck and salvage treatment of persistent lymph node disease after chemoradiotherapy. While there is broader support for the former scenario, evidence that SSND may constitute optimal treatment in the latter is in conformity with the trend toward developing surgical techniques that provide better functional outcomes without compromising efficacy.

Post-therapeutic surveillance strategies in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.

The management of head and neck squamous cell carcinomas does not end with the completion of ablative therapy. The oncologic objectives of post-treatment follow-up are to detect recurrences and second primary tumors; beyond that, follow-up should evaluate acute and chronic treatment-related side effects, guide the rehabilitation process, alleviate functional loss, manage pain, restore nutritional status and assess psychosocial factors. In this structured review, we address the questions of timing and the tools required to achieve a complete and coherent routine surveillance. Several guidelines and consensus statements recommend clinical examination as the cornerstone of follow-up which should be performed for at least 5 years, although there are no data in favor of any one particular follow-up program, and only low-level evidence suggests an improvement in oncologic outcomes by close follow-up. Baseline imaging (computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging) should be obtained within 2-6 months after definitive therapy if used for treatment response evaluation. Metabolic response, if indicated, should be assessed preferably after 3 months in patients who undergo curative-intent therapy with (chemo)-radiotherapy. Chest computed tomography is more sensitive than plain radiography, if used in follow-up, but the benefit and cost-effectiveness of routine chest computed tomography has not been demonstrated. There are no current data supporting modifications specific to the surveillance plan of patients with human papillomavirus-associated disease.

Management of Recurrent Well-Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma in the Neck: A Comprehensive Review.

Surgery has been historically the preferred primary treatment for patients with well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma and for selected locoregional recurrences. Adjuvant therapy with radioactive iodine is typically recommended for patients with an intermediate to high risk of recurrence. Despite these treatments, locally advanced disease and locoregional relapses are not infrequent. These patients have a prolonged overall survival that may result in long periods of active disease and the possibility of requiring subsequent treatments. Recently, many new options have emerged as salvage therapies. This review offers a comprehensive discussion and considerations regarding surgery, active surveillance, radioactive iodine therapy, ultrasonography-guided percutaneous ablation, external beam radiotherapy, and systemic therapy for well-differentiated thyroid cancer based on relevant publications and current reference guidelines. We feel that the surgical member of the thyroid cancer management team is empowered by being aware and facile with all management options.

Management of Older Patients with Head and Neck Cancer: A Comprehensive Review.

The projected increase in life expectancy over the next few decades is expected to result in a rise in age-related diseases, including cancer. Head and neck cancer (HNC) is a worldwide health problem with high rates of morbidity and mortality. In this report, we have critically reviewed the literature reporting the management of older patients with HNC. Older adults are more prone to complications and toxicities secondary to HNC treatment, especially those patients who are frail or have comorbidities. Thus, this population should be screened prior to treatment for such predispositions to maximize medical management of comorbidities. Chronologic age itself is not a reason for choosing less intensive treatment for older HNC patients. Whenever possible, also older patients should be treated according to the best standard of care, as nonstandard approaches may result in increased treatment failure rates and mortality. The treatment plan is best established by a multidisciplinary tumor board with shared decision-making with patients and family. Treatment modifications should be considered for those patients who have severe comorbidities, evidence of frailty (low performance status), or low performance status or those who refuse the recommendations of the tumor board.