Positive Youth Development in 2020: Theory, Research, Programs, and the Promotion of Social Justice.

We use Hamilton's (1999) tripartite conception of the positive youth development (PYD) literature - that is, PYD as a theoretical construct, PYD as a frame for program design, and PYD as an instance of specific youth development programs - as a framework for reviewing scholarship involved in the PYD field across the second decade of the 21st century. Advances were made in all three domains and, as well, new issues emerged; chief among them was a focus on the promotion of social justice. We discuss ways in which social justice issues are being addressed within each of these domains and we present a vision for enhancing the PYD-social justice relation in future scholarship involving theory, research, program design, and community-based PYD programs.

The "Haves, Have Some, and Have Nots:" a Latent Profile Analysis of Capacity, Quality, and Implementation in Community-Based Afterschool Programs.

Implementation of evidence-based practices is a critical factor in whether afterschool programs are successful in having a positive impact upon risk reduction and positive youth development. However, important prevention research reveals that contextual and organizational factors can affect implementation (Bradshaw & Pas in School Psychology Review, 40, 530-548, 2011) (Flaspohler et al., in American Journal of Community Psychology, 50(3-4), 271-281, 2012) (Gottfredson et al., Prevention Science, 3, 43-56, 2002) (McIntosh et al., Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 18(4), 209-218, 2016) (Payne in Prevention Science, 10, 151-167, 2009). Using a latent profile approach (LPA), this paper examines multiple organizational and neighborhood contextual factors that might affect the degree to which afterschool programs effectively implement evidence-based practices in the context of a cluster-randomized trial of the Paxis Good Behavior Game (PaxGBG). The Interactive Systems Framework (ISF) explores dimensions of capacity that might matter for prevention efforts. As expected, we found that well-resourced and high-quality programs performed well in terms of implementation (the Haves) and, in neighborhood contexts rich in racial-ethnic diversity. Yet, we found that some programs with less physical and material capacity (the Have Nots), demonstrated greater program quality (i.e., supportive adult and peer relationships, engagement, a sense of belonging) and implementation, relative to programs with better capacity (e.g., space, material resources, staffing, and leadership, the Have Somes). While capacity matters, intentional prevention initiatives that seek to promote evidence-based practices are helpful to sites in supporting organizations that might otherwise fail to provide quality programming for youth. This paper addresses a conundrum in prevention science, namely, how to make programming accessible to those who need it with a focus on organizational processes, program quality, and implementation of evidence-based practices.

Racism and preparation for bias within African American families.

Objectives: Exposure to racism experienced by caregivers poses a threat to child developmental outcomes. The current study examines the effects of caregiver-experienced racism on the development of internalizing behaviors for African American children during a sensitive period in their development of racial awareness. Two aspects of caregiver-provided ethnic racial socialization (ERS), cultural socialization and preparation for bias, were assessed as moderators. Supported by prior research, cultural socialization was hypothesized to be protective. Given that research on preparation for bias in early childhood is sparse or inconclusive, no directional hypothesis was formulated for the moderation effect of preparation for bias. Method: A community-recruited, low-income sample of 130 African American caregivers and their children (T3 Mage = 6.20, T4 Mage = 7.17) reported on past-year experiences with racism, ERS practices, and child internalizing behaviors. Path analyses were utilized to assess the influence of caregivers' racist experiences and ERS practices on children's first grade internalizing behaviors after controlling for kindergarten levels. Results: Cultural socialization was not a significant protective factor as hypothesized. However, caregivers' past-year experiences with racism predicted more anxious and sad behaviors in children when caregivers reported using more preparation for bias. Conclusions: The effects of caregivers' racism experiences on their 6-year-old children's internalizing behaviors were contingent on their use of preparation for bias socialization. This study adds to the literature on racism and further elucidates the role preparation for discrimination plays in developmental outcomes for young African American children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Severe Poverty and Growth in Behavioral Self-Regulation: The Mediating Role of Parenting.

This study examined how exposure to severe poverty related to behavioral self-regulation growth during early childhood as mediated by parenting practices. Ethnic differences were tested. Data were collected across 4 waves from 359 low-income African American and Latino families. The frequency of exposure to severe poverty was indicated by how many times family income fell below 50% of the federal poverty line across 4 waves. Behavioral self-regulation was assessed when children were 3½, 6, and 7 years old (Wave 2-4), and parenting was observed when children were age 2½ years old (Wave 1). More frequent exposure to severe poverty was associated with slower behavioral self-regulation growth, and the effect was partially mediated through less sensitive and supportive parenting practices for Latino families. The mediation was not observed for African American families. Targeting the promotion of sensitive and supportive parenting practices may be an effective strategy for accelerating self-regulation development.

Promoting Afterschool Quality and Positive Youth Development: Cluster Randomized Trial of the Pax Good Behavior Game.

This randomized trial tested a strategy originally developed for school settings, the Pax Good Behavior Game (PAX GBG), in the new context of afterschool programs. We examined this approach in afterschool since 70% of all juvenile crime occurs between the hours of 3-6 pm, making afterschool an important setting for prevention and promotion. Dual-career and working families need monitoring and supervision for their children in quality settings that are safe and appropriately structured. While substantial work has identified important features of afterschool programs, increasing attention is being given to how to foster quality. PAX GBG, with its focus on shared norms, cooperative teams, contingent activity rewards, and liberal praise, could potentially enhance not only appropriate structure and supportive relationships, but also youth self-regulation, co-regulation, and socio-emotional development. This study examined the PAX GBG among 76 afterschool programs, serving 811 youth ages 5-12, who were diverse in race-ethnicity, socio-economic status, and geographic locale. Demographically matched pairs of afterschool programs were randomized to PAX GBG or treatment-as-usual. Independent observers conducted ratings of implementation fidelity and program quality across time; along with surveys of children's problem and prosocial behavior. Interaction effects were found using hierarchical linear models such that experimental programs evidencing higher implementation fidelity demonstrated better program quality than controls, (i.e., less harshness, increased appropriate structure, support, and engagement), as well as reduced child-reported hyperactivity and intent-to-treat effects on prosocial behavior. This study demonstrates that best practices fostered by PAX GBG and implemented with fidelity in afterschool result in higher quality contexts for positive youth development.

Ethical Challenges in Promoting the Implementation of Preventive Interventions: Report of the SPR Task Force.

Prevention science researchers and practitioners are increasingly engaged in a wide range of activities and roles to promote evidence-based prevention practices in the community. Ethical concerns invariably arise in these activities and roles that may not be explicitly addressed by university or professional guidelines for ethical conduct. In 2015, the Society for Prevention Research (SPR) Board of Directors commissioned Irwin Sandler and Tom Dishion to organize a series of roundtables and establish a task force to identify salient ethical issues encountered by prevention scientists and community-based practitioners as they collaborate to implement evidence-based prevention practices. This article documents the process and findings of the SPR Ethics Task Force and aims to inform continued efforts to articulate ethical practice. Specifically, the SPR membership and task force identified prevention activities that commonly stemmed from implementation and scale-up efforts. This article presents examples that illustrate typical ethical dilemmas. We present principles and concepts that can be used to frame the discussion of ethical concerns that may be encountered in implementation and scale-up efforts. We summarize value statements that stemmed from our discussion. We also conclude that the field of prevention science in general would benefit from standards and guidelines to promote ethical behavior and social justice in the process of implementing evidence-based prevention practices in community settings. It is our hope that this article serves as an educational resource for students, investigators, and Human Subjects Review Board members regarding some of the complexity of issues of fairness, equality, diversity, and personal rights for implementation of preventive interventions.

Positive Youth Development Among Diverse Racial-Ethnic Children: Quality Afterschool Contexts as Developmental Assets.

Positive youth development (PYD) deserves more empirical attention, particularly among children of diverse racial-ethnic backgrounds. Given the need among families for monitoring and supervision during out-of-school time, community-based afterschool is a potentially promotive ecological setting. This study explores the quality of afterschool experiences upon PYD. This multimethod study includes over 500 elementary school children in Grades 2-5 (Mage  = 8.80, SD = 1.12). The sample comprises of 49% White, 27% African American, 7% Latino, and 17% mixed race/others with 45% free/reduced lunch eligible children. In multilevel models, independently observed quality across time positively impacted competence, connection, caring for all youth, and cultural values for racial-ethnic minority youth. Afterschool fosters PYD, including sociocultural dimensions, when comprised of appropriately structured, supportive, and engaging interactions.

Racial-ethnic Identity in Context: Examining Mediation of Neighborhood Factors on Children's Academic Adjustment.

Research consistently shows that neighborhood socio-demographic characteristics and residents' neighborhood perceptions matter for youth well-being, including a positive sense of racial-ethnic identity. Although elementary-school children are likely in the earlier phases of identity formation, the authors examined whether objective and subjective neighborhood characteristics are related to their racial-ethnic identity and, in turn, their academic adjustment. A diverse sample (30.4% African American, 35.2% White, 12.3% Latino, & 22.0% Other) of 227 children in Grades 2 through 5 were surveyed in afterschool programs. Bivariate correlations showed that youth living in disadvantaged neighborhoods reported more barriers due to their race-ethnicity, but these barriers were not related to their sense of academic efficacy. Residing in a disadvantaged neighborhood was unrelated to youth's academic self-efficacy. However, path analyses showed that positive neighborhood perceptions were associated with a stronger sense of race-ethnicity (i.e., affirmation and belonging), which was in turn related to greater academic efficacy. These results suggest that neighborhood connection provides a source of affirmation and value for young children, helping them to understand who they are as part of a racial-ethnic group and helping to foster a sense of future achievement opportunities. This study provides additional evidence that along with other important proximal contexts (e.g., family, school), young children's neighborhood context is important for development. Results are discussed to highlight environmental influences on young children's awareness of race-ethnicity and the implications of the combined impact of neighborhood and racial-ethnic identity on psychosocial adjustment.

Measuring afterschool program quality using setting-level observational approaches.

As the importance of afterschool hours for youth development is widely acknowledged, afterschool settings have recently received increasing attention as an important venue for youth interventions. A range of intervention programs have been in place, generally aiming at positive youth development through enhancing the quality of programs. A growing need has thus arisen for reliable and valid measures of afterschool quality. This study examined the extent to which the two observational tools, i.e., Caregiver Interaction Scales (CIS) and Promising Practices Rating Scales (PPRS), could serve as reliable and valid tools for assessing the various dimensions of afterschool setting quality. The study shows the potential promise of the instruments, on the one hand, and suggests future directions for improvement of measurement design and development of the field, on the other hand. In particular, our findings suggest the importance of addressing the effect of day-to-day fluctuations in observed afterschool quality.

Top-down, bottom-up, and around the jungle gym: a social exchange and networks approach to engaging afterschool programs in implementing evidence-based practices.

This paper uses concepts from social networks and social exchange theories to describe the implementation of evidence-based practices in afterschool programs. The members of the LEGACY Together Afterschool Project team have been involved in conducting collaborative research to migrate a behavioral strategy that has been documented to reduce disruptive behaviors in classroom settings to a new setting-that of afterschool programs. We adapted the Paxis Institute's version of the Good Behavior Game to afterschool settings which differ from in-school settings, including more fluid attendance, multiple age groupings, diverse activities that may take place simultaneously, and differences in staff training and experience (Barrish et al. in J Appl Behav Anal 2(2):119-124, 1969; Embry et al. in The Pax Good Behavior Game. Hazelden, Center City, 2003; Hynes et al. in J Child Serv 4(3):4-20, 2009; Kellam et al. in Drug Alcohol Depend 95:S5-S28, 2008; Tingstrom et al. in Behav Modif 30(2):225-253, 2006). This paper presents the experiences of the three adult groups involved in the implementation process who give first-person accounts of implementation: (1) university-based scientist-practitioners, (2) community partners who trained and provided technical assistance/coaching, and (3) an afterschool program administrator. We introduce here the AIMS model used to frame the implementation process conceptualized by this town-gown collaborative team. AIMS builds upon previous work in implementation science using four phases in which the three collaborators have overlapping roles: approach/engagement, implementation, monitoring, and sustainability. Within all four phases principles of Social Exchange Theory and Social Network Theory are highlighted.

Measuring collective efficacy among children in community-based afterschool programs: exploring pathways toward prevention and positive youth development.

Collective efficacy refers to a perceived sense of connectedness and willingness to intervene among youth, and is a potential aspect of positive youth development (Larson in Am Psychol 55:170-183, 2000; Lerner et al. in Child Dev 71:11-20, 2000; Sampson et al. in Science 277:918-924, 1997). Theoretically, those who feel connected to a group that is empowered to positively influence the behavior of their peers may demonstrate fewer problem behaviors. Few studies, however, have measured the impact of youth perceptions of collective efficacy. As a relatively new child-related research topic, there is much to be learned. One contribution to the foundation of this research agenda begins by evaluating the reliability and validity of a measure of collective efficacy with elementary children attending community-based afterschool programs. This paper describes the internal consistency reliability and various indicators of construct and concurrent validity of the Collective Efficacy Among Children Scale. The measure was found to have high internal consistency reliability. Construct validity was tested using exploratory factor analyses of collective efficacy including the dimensions of willingness to intervene and cohesion found in previous research (Sampson et al. in Science 277:918-924, 1997). Concurrent validity assessed relations between the scale and other measures in theoretically congruent ways. Using Hierarchical Linear Models to account for children's nestedness in after-school programs, connectedness was found to be more related to emotional adjustment, particularly children's prosocial attitudes (caring about others and sharing). Children's perception of the willingness of the group to intervene was found to be related to less problem behavior, (i.e. smoking tobacco, drinking alcohol, vandalism, and stealing). The implications suggest that future research should further explore children's collective efficacy, and ways to foster its development in youth-serving afterschool settings.

Using the interactive systems framework in understanding the relation between general program capacity and implementation in afterschool settings.

The present study uses the Interactive Systems Framework (ISF) to understand how general capacity influences the implementation of prevention programs in afterschool settings. Eight afterschool sites received the Good Behavior Game (GBG) intervention, a program designed to foster supportive behavioral management and positive youth behavior. In line with the Prevention Support System component of ISF, the intervention afterschool staff were trained and received weekly on-site support from coaches in implementing the GBG. It was found that GBG implementation scores were greatest in afterschool programs that rated high on both organizational- and community-levels of general capacity; high scores on only one level of general capacity resulted in lower implementation scores. Thus, afterschool sites that were more organized, maintained adequate facilities, and developed strong linkages to individuals or organizations in the community scored highest in implementation fidelity and quality. This study highlights the importance of considering interactions among multiple levels of general capacity in efforts to promote evidence-based practices in afterschool settings. Caution should be taken in generalizing findings due to the small sample in this study.

Exploring Racial-Ethnic Pride & Perceived Barriers in PYD: A Latent Profile Analysis.

This study sought to identify profiles of positive youth development (PYD) integrating racial-ethnic factors, specifically racial-ethnic pride and perceived racial-ethnic barriers in a sample of African American (77%) and Latino (23%) children (N = 234, Mean age = 8). Using a latent profile analysis, we found three profiles: The High PYD, Proud & Optimistic (High PYD, racial-ethnic pride, and low perceived racial-ethnic barriers), the High PYD, Proud & Aware (high PYD, pride, and perceived barriers), and the Low PYD and Disconnected (low PYD, pride and high barriers). The Optimistic profile exhibited fewer overall adjustment problems and higher standardized achievement at Time 2 than both the Aware and the Disconnected profiles. The Aware and the Disconnected showed similar adjustments. This study highlights the critical role of helping youth to feel competent, caring, connected, and proud, further supporting the role of socio-cultural factors in the PYD of African American and Latino children.

Fathering quality in early childhood and kindergarten achievement in low-income racial-ethnic minority children.

The relative lack of attention to fathers' effects on children's achievement is even more apparent when examining fathering among low-income racial-ethnic minorities. We examined relations of fathering qualities when children were 2-3 years old with subsequent reading and mathematics achievement in kindergarten in a sample of low-income African American (n = 119) and primarily Mexican-origin Latino children (n = 193) from multiple neighborhood areas of a large city in the southwestern United States. Measures of parenting qualities were based on qualitative ratings of videotaped observations of father-child and mother-child interactions collected in the home during semistructured play activities. Mathematics and reading achievement scores were based on administration of the Woodcock-Johnson Revised (Woodcock & Muñoz-Sandoval, 1993) or the Batería Woodcock-Muñoz (Woodcock & Munoz-Sandoval, 1996), as appropriate depending upon the child's language. A structural equations model in which kindergarten mathematics and reading achievement were regressed on early childhood fathering displayed good model fit, χ2(72) = 131.30, p < .001, comparative fit index = .954, root mean square error of approximation = .051, standardized root mean square residual = .079. Results indicated that sensitive support from African American and Latino resident fathers was associated with their children's mathematics achievement even after controlling for mothers' sensitive support, but fathering quality was not associated with reading achievement. The implications of these findings for the study of fathering in racial-ethnic minority populations as well as for the development of early preventive interventions to support academic achievement are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Cultural processes in parenting and youth outcomes: examining a model of racial-ethnic socialization and identity in diverse populations.

We review and summarize the findings across 7 studies contained in the special section titled, "Racial-Ethnic Socialization, Identity, and Youth Outcomes: Excavating Culture." These studies represent a significant advance for research in issues related to the impact of racial-ethnic socialization and identity on child outcomes. All 7 studies attempted to test in whole or part a hypothetical model in which ethnic-racial socialization in families of color is related to child psychosocial and academic outcomes directly and indirectly through effects on self-system variables such as racial-ethnic identity and self-esteem. Two types of racial socialization messages were of particular interest: messages that promote cultural pride (referred to as ethnic or cultural socialization) and messages that address children's exposure to discrimination (referred to as racial socialization). Collectively, the studies suggest that ethnic-racial socialization processes are related to youth outcomes through indirect associations with ethnic-racial identity and self-esteem. Findings were most consistent in the studies with African American youth and some aspects of the model were not supported for American Indian and Chinese youth. Ethnic and racial group differences and directions for future research are discussed.

A developmental perspective of the relationship of racial-ethnic identity to self-construct, achievement, and behavior in African American children.

This longitudinal study examines the development of racial-ethnic identity among African American children. Racial preferences were assessed in early elementary school with the Racial Attitudes, Beliefs, and Stereotypes Measure-II, a projective technique using paired comparisons of pictures of African American, Asian, Latino, and Caucasian children. Racial-ethnic identity in 3rd grade was assessed using the Multi-Ethnic Identity Measure Ethnic Belonging subscale. Multilevel models indicated that own-group racial preferences increased with age. Second-grade own-group preferences were positively related to 3rd-grade racial-ethnic identity scores. Third-grade racial-ethnic identity was associated positively with self-esteem variables (scholastic, social, physical appearance, and behavioral) and with academic performance. Identity correlated negatively with parent-rated aggression and externalizing and internalizing behaviors. The findings suggest that children's racial-ethnic identity develops differentially by gender, with girls showing faster growth but lower initial ethnic identity. Racial-ethnic identity was shown to be modestly but statistically significantly associated with various important child outcomes.

Symptoms and synchrony: Mother and child internalizing problems moderate respiratory sinus arrhythmia concordance in mother-preadolescent dyads.

Physiological synchrony, or concordance, among caregiver-child dyads involves the matching of biological states. Understanding this process is critical for enhancing our knowledge of the ways that the caregiver-child relationship supports child development. However, the meaning of physiological synchrony for child adjustment is poorly understood. This study examined physiological synchrony in respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), an indicator of parasympathetic activity, between 87 mothers (M age = 35.30 years, SD = 6.71 years) and their preadolescent children (M age = 10.36 years, SD = 1. 19 years, 52.9% girls). Dyads, all of which were from economically impoverished backgrounds, participated in 3 tasks that varied in the level of interaction that was required between the partners. Mothers self-reported their own depressive symptoms and rated their children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Physiological synchrony was generally strongest in tasks requiring the greatest levels of interaction among partners. Further, RSA synchrony was positive in the context of low levels of maternal depressive and child internalizing symptoms, and negative in the context of high levels of such symptoms, though results varied by task. Child externalizing symptoms did not moderate the RSA concordance process. The results identify both proximal and distal contexts in which physiological synchrony occurs, which ultimately broadens our understanding of the meaning and significance of parent-child physiological synchrony. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Using Connected Technologies in a Continuous Quality Improvement Approach in After-school Settings: The PAX Good Behavior Game.

This demonstration study explored the use of connected technologies in a continuous quality improvement (CQI) approach to implementing evidence-based practices in after-school. Focus-group with staff indicated enjoyment of technology and offered feedback for future development. Ecological momentary assessments (EMA) were gathered daily. Three randomized conditions were compared among 4 programs and 12 staff implementing PAX Good Behavior Game (PAX GBG). ANOVA, Post-Hoc Tukey and Chi-square analyses indicated that the tech-enhanced condition showed better implementation using scoreboards than the in-person, while similar in game length. Both were superior to the control in behavioral strategies; highlighting the promise of technology in capacity-building.

Cultural Values and Behavior Among African American and European American Children.

OBJECTIVES: This study explores the relationships of individualistic (e.g., competition, material success) and collectivistic values (e.g., familism, respect) with risky and prosocial behavior among African-American and European-American youth. While previous work has focused upon immigrant adolescents, this study expands the research exploring cultural values to other racial-ethnic groups and to a younger developmental period. This study builds upon culture as individually experienced beliefs and practices, potentially espousing multiple cultural orientations and relationships to behavior. METHODS: Data from Cohort 3 of a study of 219 urban, suburban, and rural children included African-American (42%) and European-American(58%) children, 54% female, ranging from grades 1-5 (mean age = 9). Multigroup structural equation models were tested resulting in a measurement model that fit similarly across groups (RMSEA=.05, CFI =.94). RESULTS: African-American children reported higher levels of individualism, and African-American and European-American children reported espousing similar levels of collectivism. Children in higher grades were found to be more collectivistic and less individualistic. Individualistic values were related to children's lower prosocial and higher rates of problem and delinquent behavior. Collectivistic cultural values were associated with reduced rates of problem behaviors, controlling for race-ethnicity, gender and grade. CONCLUSIONS: Results provide support for the assertion that youth espouse multiple cultural orientations and that collectivistic cultural values can serve as promotive factors for children of diverse backgrounds. Practice and policy should seek to understand the role of family, school, and community socialization of multiple cultural orientations and nuanced associations with risk and resilience.

Promoting Nurturing Environments in Afterschool Settings.

Given the rise in dual-career and single-parent families, and the need for monitoring and supervision during out-of-school time, afterschool settings are becoming important contexts for the prevention of problem behaviors and the promotion of the positive development of youth. Research indicates that high-quality afterschool programs can have positive effects on children's academic, socio-emotional, and behavioral outcomes. But less is known about how these influences occur and potential mechanisms involved in this nurturing and promotion process. This paper draws upon the current theoretical and empirical literature in school settings and beyond to examine ways in which afterschool settings can be leveraged as a potential nurturing environment. We apply the conceptualization of nurturing environments put forth by Biglan et al. (Am Psychol 67(4):257-271, 2012. doi: 10.1037/a0026796 ), which attends to the minimization of toxic social and biological conditions, reinforcement of diverse prosocial behaviors, limiting opportunities and influences for problem behavior, and promoting psychological flexibility in the pursuit of one's values and goals. This paper concludes by identifying potential future research directions and practice implications regarding afterschool settings as nurturing environments for all youth.