Human Carboxylesterase 1A Plays a Predominant Role in Hydrolysis of the Anti-Dyslipidemia Agent Fenofibrate in Humans.

Fenofibrate, a marketed peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPARα) agonist, has been widely used for treating severe hypertriglyceridemia and mixed dyslipidemia. As a canonical prodrug, fenofibrate can be rapidly hydrolyzed to release the active metabolite (fenofibric acid) in vivo, but the crucial enzyme(s) responsible for fenofibrate hydrolysis and the related hydrolytic kinetics have not been well-investigated. This study aimed to assign the key organs and crucial enzymes involved in fenofibrate hydrolysis in humans, as well as reveal the impact of fenofibrate hydrolysis on its non-PPAR-mediated biologic activities. Our results demonstrated that fenofibrate could be rapidly hydrolyzed in the preparations from both human liver and lung to release fenofibric acid. Reaction phenotyping assays coupling with chemical inhibition assays showed that human carboxylesterase 1A (hCES1A) played a predominant role in fenofibrate hydrolysis in human liver and lung, while human carboxylesterase 2A (hCES2A) and human monoacylglycerol esterase (hMAGL) contributed to a very lesser extent. Kinetic analyses showed that fenofibrate could be rapidly hydrolyzed by hCES1A in human liver preparations, while the inherent clearance of hCES1A-catalyzed fenofibrate hydrolysis is much higher (>200-fold) than than that of hCES2A or hMAGL. Biologic assays demonstrated that both fenofibrate and fenofibric acid showed very closed Nrf2 agonist effects, but fenofibrate hydrolysis strongly weakens its inhibitory effects against both hCES2A and hNtoum. Collectively, our findings reveal that the liver is the major organ and hCES1A is the predominant enzyme-catalyzing fenofibrate hydrolysis in humans, while fenofibrate hydrolysis significantly reduces inhibitory effects of fenofibrate against serine hydrolases. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Fenofibrate can be completely converted to fenofibric acid in humans and subsequently exert its pharmacological effects, but the hydrolytic pathways of fenofibrate in humans have not been well-investigated. This study reported that the liver was the predominant organ and human carboxylesterase 1A was the crucial enzyme involved in fenofibrate hydrolysis in humans.

Inhibition of pancreatic lipase by environmental xenoestrogens.

Environmental xenoestrogens are the most accessible endocrine disrupting chemicals that have been reported with harmful effects on human health. Although the influences of xenoestrogens on the endocrine system have been extensively studied, it remains unclear whether these xenoestrogens can affect the digestive system in mammals. This study aimed to investigate the inhibitory effects and the underlying mechanism of six non-steroidal synthetic estrogens (including hexestrol, diethylstilbestrol, dienestrol, bisphenol A, bisphenol AF and bisphenol Z) on pancreatic lipase (PL), a key digestive enzyme responsible for lipid digestion and absorption in mammals. The results clearly demonstrated that hexestrol, diethylstilbestrol and dienestrol exhibited strong inhibition on PL, with the IC50 values of less than 1.0 µM. Further investigations elucidated that these three synthetic estrogens functioned as mixed inhibitors of PL, with the Ki values of less than 1 µM. Moreover, molecular dynamics simulations showed that diethylstilbestrol and its analogues might block the binding of substrate on PL via occupying the portal to the active site of PL and thereby inhibit the hydrolytic activity of this key enzyme. Collectively, these results suggested that diethylstilbestrol and its analogues were potent PL inhibitors, which might play a profound role in lipid absorption and weight gain in mammals.

Discovery of Tetrahydro Tanshinone I as a Naturally Occurring Covalent Pan-Inhibitor Against Gut Microbial Bile Salt Hydrolases.

Gut microbial bile salt hydrolases (gmBSHs), an important class of bacteria-produced cysteine hydrolases, play a crucial role in bile acid metabolism. Modulating the total gmBSH activity is a feasible way for ameliorating some metabolic diseases including colorectal cancer, type 2 diabetes, and obesity. This study reported the discovery and characterization of a botanical compound as a covalent pan-inhibitor of gmBSHs. Following the screening of more than 100 botanical compounds, tanshinones were found with strong time-dependent anti-EfBSH effects. After that, a total of 17 naturally occurring tanshinones were collected, and their anti-EfBSH potentials were tested. Among all tested tanshinones, tetrahydro tanshinone I (THTI) exhibited the most potent inhibitory effects against five gmBSHs (EfBSH, LsBSH, BtBSH, CpBSH, and BlBSH), showing the IC50 values ranging from 0.28 ± 0.05 µM to 1.62 ± 0.07 µM. Further investigations showed that THTI could covalently modify the conserved catalytic cysteine (Cys2) of all tested gmBSHs, while this agent could strongly inhibit the total gmBSHs activity in live microorganisms and murine gut luminal content. Collectively, THTI is identified as a naturally occurring covalent pan-inhibitor of gmBSHs, which offers a promising lead compound to develop more efficacious gmBSHs inhibitors for the management of bile acid metabolism and related metabolic disorders.

Discovery and characterization of amentoflavone as a naturally occurring inhibitor against the bile salt hydrolase produced by Lactobacillus salivarius.

Bile salt hydrolases (BSHs), a group of cysteine-hydrolases produced by gut microbes, play a crucial role in the hydrolysis of glycine- or taurine-conjugated bile acids and have been validated as key targets to modulate bile acid metabolism. This study aims to discover one or more efficacious inhibitors against a BSH produced by Lactobacillus salivarius (lsBSH) from natural products and to characterize the mechanism of the newly identified BSH inhibitor(s). Following screening of the inhibition potentials of more than 100 natural compounds against lsBSH, amentoflavone (AMF), a naturally occurring biflavone isolated from various medicinal plants, was discovered to be an efficacious BSH inhibitor (IC50 = 0.34 µM). Further investigation showed that AMF could strongly inhibit the lsBSH-catalyzed hydrolytic reaction in living gut microbes. Inhibition kinetic analyses demonstrated that AMF reversibly inhibited the lsBSH-catalyzed hydrolytic reaction in a mixed-inhibition manner, with an apparent Ki value of 0.65 µM. Fluorescence quenching assays suggested that AMF could quench the fluorescence of lsBSH via a static quenching procedure. Docking simulations suggested that AMF could be fitted into lsBSH at two distinct ligand-binding sites, mainly via hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding, which explained well the mixed inhibition mode of this agent. Animal tests showed that the hydrolytic activities of BSHs in mice feces could be significantly blocked by AMF. In summary, this study reports that AMF is a strong, naturally occurring inhibitor of lsBSH, which offers a promising lead compound to develop novel agents for modulating bile acid metabolism in the host via targeting BSHs.

Rapalogues as hCES2A Inhibitors: In Vitro and In Silico Investigations.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Rapamycin and its semi-synthetic analogues (rapalogues) are frequently used in combination with other prescribed medications in clinical settings. Although the inhibitory effects of rapalogues on cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs) have been well examined, the inhibition potentials of rapalogues on human esterases have not been investigated. Herein, the inhibition potentials and inhibitory mechanisms of six marketed rapalogues on human esterases are investigated. METHODS: The inhibitory effects of six marketed rapalogues (rapamycin, zotarolimus, temsirolimus, everolimus, pimecrolimus and tacrolimus) on three major esterases, including human carboxylesterases 1 (hCES1A), human carboxylesterases 2 (hCES2A) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), were assayed using isozyme-specific substrates. Inhibition kinetic analyses and docking simulations were performed to investigate the inhibitory mechanisms of the rapalogues with strong hCES2A inhibition potency. RESULTS: Zotarolimus and pimecrolimus displayed strong inhibition of human hCES2A but these agents did not inhibit hCES1A or BuChE. Further investigation demonstrated that zotarolimus could strongly inhibit intracellular hCES2A in living HepG2 cells, with an estimated IC50 value of 4.09 µM. Inhibition kinetic analyses revealed that zotarolimus inhibited hCES2A-catalyzed fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis in a mixed manner, with the Ki value of 1.61 µM. Docking simulations showed that zotarolimus could tightly bind on hCES2A at two district ligand-binding sites, consistent with its mixed inhibition mode. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate that several marketed rapalogues are potent and specific hCES2A inhibitors, and these agents can serve as leading compounds for the development of more efficacious hCES2A inhibitors to modulate the pharmacokinetic profiles and toxicity of hCES2A-substrate drugs (such as the anticancer agent irinotecan).

Pancreatic lipase inhibitory constituents from Fructus Psoraleae.

Pancreatic lipase (PL), a crucial enzyme in the digestive system of mammals, has been proven as a therapeutic target to prevent and treat obesity. The purpose of this study is to evaluate and characterize the PL inhibition activities of the major constituents from Fructus Psoraleae (FP), one of the most frequently used Chinese herbs with lipid-lowering activity. To this end, a total of eleven major constituents isolated from Fructus Psoraleae have been obtained and their inhibition potentials against PL have been assayed by a fluorescence-based assay. Among all tested compounds, isobavachalcone, bavachalcone and corylifol A displayed strong inhibition on PL (IC50 < 10 µmol·L-1). Inhibition kinetic analyses demonstrated that isobavachalcone, bavachalcone and corylifol A acted as mixed inhibitors against PL-mediated 4-methylumbelliferyl oleate (4-MUO) hydrolysis, with the Ki values of 1.61, 3.77 and 10.16 µmol·L-1, respectively. Furthermore, docking simulations indicated that two chalcones (isobavachalcone and bavachalcone) could interact with the key residues located in the catalytic cavity of PL via hydrogen binding and hydrophobic interactions. Collectively, these finding provided solid evidence to support that Fructus Psoraleae contained bioactive compounds with lipid-lowering effects via targeting PL, and also suggested that the chalcones in Fructus Psoraleae could be used as ideal leading compounds to develop novel PL inhibitors.

Electrophysiologic effects of 17ß-estradiol on pacemaker cells in sinoatrial nodes of rabbits.

To investigate the electrophysiological effects of 17ß-estradiol on pacemaker cells in sinoatrial (SA) nodes of rabbits and the underlying mechanism, intracellular microelectrode technique was used to record action potential (AP) in SA node cells of rabbits. The results showed that: (1) 17ß-estradiol (1, 10, 100 µmol/L) not only significantly decreased the amplitude of action potential (APA) and the maximal rate of depolarization (V(max)), but also decreased the velocity of diastolic (phase 4) depolarization (VDD) and rate of pacemaker firing (RPF) in a concentration-dependent manner. The AP duration at 50% repolarization (APD(50)) and at 90% repolarization (APD(90)) were prolonged. But the maximal diastolic potential (MDP) was not affected. (2) Pretreatment with tamoxifen (10 µmol/L), an inhibitor of estrogen receptor, did not block the electrophysiological effects of 17ß-estradiol (10 µmol/L) on SA node cells. (3) Pretreatment with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 100 µmol/L), a nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, completely abolished the electrophysiological effects of 17ß-estradiol (10 µmol/L) on SA node cells. The results suggest that 17ß-estradiol inhibits the electrophysiological activity of pacemaker cells in SA nodes of rabbits in a concentration-dependent manner possibly through a non-genomic mechanism related with NO.

A ratiometric theranostic probe for tumor targeting therapy and self-therapeutic monitoring.

Feedback imaging-guided precise photodynamic therapy (PDT) can facilitate the development of personalized medicine. In this work, a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) based theranostic probe was fabricated for simultaneous tumor targeting PDT and ratiometric imaging of the therapeutic effect. The theranostic probe (designated as P-PpIX) was comprised of a targeting moiety, a caspase-3 responsive linker, a FRET fluorophore pair and a photosensitizer. It was found that P-PpIX exhibited low intrinsic background fluorescence due to the high FRET quenching efficiency. The Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) targeting moiety allowed P-PpIX to selectively accumulate in αvß3 integrin overexpressed tumor cells. Upon photo irradiation, the PDT effect of P-PpIX could induce cell death with apoptosis related mechanism, and the activated caspase-3 would subsequently cleave the Asp-Glu-Val-Asp (DEVD) peptide sequence to terminate the intramolecular FRET process. The activated caspase-3 expression and the real time therapeutic efficacy could be precisely assessed in situ by the fluorescence intensity ratio of the released 5(6)-carboxylfluorescein (FAM, reporter fluorescence) and protoporphyrin IX (PpIX, internal reference fluorescence). This novel ratiometric theranostic probe could provide the real-time feedback for precise PDT.

Bright, efficient, and color-stable violet ZnSe-based quantum dot light-emitting diodes.

In this paper, highly stable violet-blue emitting ZnSe/ZnS core/shell QDs have been synthesized by a novel "low temperature injection and high temperature growth" method. The resulting nearly monodisperse ZnSe/ZnS core/shell QDs exhibit excellent characteristics such as a high color saturation (typical spectral full width at half-maximum between 12 and 20 nm), good emission tunability in the violet-blue range of wavelengths from 400 to 455 nm, a high absolute PL quantum yield (up to 83%), and superior chemical and photochemical stability. By employing ZnSe/ZnS core/shell quantum dots (QDs) as emitters with a fully solution processable method, bright, efficient, and color-stable violet Cd-free quantum dot-based light-emitting diodes (QD-LEDs) with maximum luminance up to 2632 cd m(-2) and a peak EQE of 7.83% have been demonstrated successfully. Considering the factors of the photopic luminosity function, the brightness and efficiency results of such violet QD-LEDs not only represent a 12-fold increase in device efficiency and an extraordinary 100 times increase in luminance compared with previous Cd-free QD-LEDs but also can be much superior to the best performance (1.7%) of their Cd-based violet counterparts. These results demonstrate significant progress in short-wavelength QD-LEDs and shed light on the acceleration of commercial application of environmentally-friendly violet QD-based displays and lighting.